Critical Examination of the change management implications the Essay

Critical Examination of the change management implications the retirement of Terry Leahy's (Chief Executive) will have on Tesco - Essay Example Since its conception, Tesco has taken advantage and tackled major changes which have contributed to its success. Many changes facing the organization involve entrance of more women in the workplace, big disposable income, advent of weekly shop and the cheap food policy which was adopted in Britain after Second World War. The Origins and Development of Change in Financial Management The change in the financial growth of Tesco originates from e-commerce business activities which started in 2000 according to Finch (p184). Tesco concentrated more on its non-food business including the e-commerce business. Since then the company’s market shares have rapidly and impressively improved in the twenty first century. The management of Tesco since in history has been using technology for effective change. Tesco came up with a project known as Prospect to establish the areas in which technology could improve operational performance. The supermarket has indulged in a store-opening programme r for maintaining its position as the leading supermarket in the UK. The departure of a chief executive from any company attracts huge expectations in as far as changes in management are concerned as suggested by Toni and Tonchia (p947). The change can positive or even unsetting one depending on the leaving chief executive influence. The retired chief executive officer of Tesco spent his career developing the organization to be the biggest grocer in Britain. However his successor Phillip Clarke, will face the challenge of either maintaining the position or braking the company. The retailer has a wide range of products ranging from food to furniture as well mortgages and motor scooters. It has several outlets including its headquarters in Cheshunt and its branches in china. Tesco customers include buyers of high-quality goods and of low-cost goods while stores range from mega-stores to corner shops. One of the major changes that have been encountered by the retailer since the retirem ent of Leahy is the financial management. Since the set up of a joint venture with Royal bank which was done Leahy’s predecessor, Tesco has been offering financial services. According to Anon (69), this section has rapidly grown offering services such as loans, insurance and credit cards. One of the financial changes includes the now fully owned Tesco Bank which is aiming at becoming a great competitor to other banks. So far Tesco is selling its financial products to almost six million customers. Last year, the retailer launched a range of mortgages and savings account while in the current year Tesco is planning to launch a current account. The retail organization also intends to capitalize the discontent of customers through their current jobs. A focus by Liz Hartley who is principle consultant indicates that Tesco Bank will be among the top ten best banks in the country within the next five years. However the growth of the bank is likely to cause more changes in the organiz ation since banks are valued in a very different way compared to retailer. Key Implications of the Change to the Organization The change in financial management of Tesco has brought with it different implications. These implications include: The implication of balancing the current cost of managerial time with the new suppliers benefits as well as how to cope with the existing suppliers. With the retirement of Leahy, Tesco financial managem

Gaskell North and South Essay Example for Free

Gaskell North and South Essay Gaskell’s ‘North and South’, set in Victorian England, is the story of Margaret Hale, a young woman whose life is completely turned on its head when her family moves to northern England. As an outsider from the agricultural south, Margaret is initially shocked by the aggressive northerners of the dirty, smoky industrial town of Milton, but as she adapts to her new home, she defies social conventions with her ready sympathy and defense of the working poor. Her passionate advocacy of the lower classes leads her to repeatedly clash with charismatic mill owner John Thornton over his treatment of his workers. While Margaret denies her growing attraction to him, Thornton agonizes over his foolish passion for her, in spite of their heated disagreements. As tensions mount between them, a violent unionization strike explodes in Milton, leaving everyone to deal with the aftermath in the town and in their personal lives. Gaskell’s novel could certainly be described as a social commentary; England at the time was extremely class-conscious, yet In almost all cases, Margaret does not so much choose sides as acknowledge mutually dependent and beneficial relationships. Though her family has very little in the way of money or assets, her family roots are in the gentry, yet when the family is moved up North to Milton, Margaret befriends and socializes with both ends of the social spectrum, mill owners and workers. Margaret is even capable of initiating a friendship of sorts between worker and owner, Higgins and Thornton even come up with a plan together to provide a canteen for the workers to get hot food. Differences in life in the South and life in the North are compared and contrasted often in a very subtle fashion, as are the differences in values and class structure. It is also very interesting to note that the difficulties of the lives of the impoverished factory workers are highlighted, however the difficulties faced by the factory owners are also presented. Through Margaret, Gaskell is able to transcend social class and at the same time create a hero amongst the industrial poverty of Milton, she acts in a way that would have been unconventional and frowned upon at the time for the good of such people as the Higgins family. When she is seen bringing a basket of food to the house during the workers strike, her peers condemn her at a dinner at the Thornton’s. Highlighting both the differences between northern and southern culture and the clashes between social conscientiousness. It could be said that ‘North and South’ is a novel defined by the resolution of binary conflicts; Margaret Hale is presented with a number of divisions of sympathy, between industrialists and the working class, between conflicting views of Mr.  Thornton, and even between her conflicting views of her own intelligence. Nancy Mann, in her essay â€Å"Intelligence and Self-Awareness in ‘North and South’: a Matter of Sex and Class† stipulates that the novel â€Å"concentrates on a crucial problem of the development of the novel in the nineteenth century, the relationship between abstract intelligence and self-awareness, and the ways in which this relationship may be affected by factors of sex and class†(1). What Mann is saying is that Gaskell is successful in throwing off the conventional boundaries of the classic romantic Victorian with all its feminist connotations and persuasions and has created a character that transcends the constraints of class and what is proper to actually do some good in her new environment. Gaskell’s most prominent social explorations however come in the form of contrasts. For example Margaret’s relationship with the Higgins family, especially Bessie, both nineteen years old when they meet, one healthy and the other gravely ill can be seen as a dramatic comment on class iniquity. Gaskell uses Bessie as a dramatic device in the novel to draw Margaret and her father closer, a task some literary critics consider to be so well done that Bessie is often discounted from the actual story. She is also a device to show the plight of the working class woman, Bessie is even described by one critic as ‘the most extensive portrait of a factory girl in the mainstream industrial novels, and as such, she reveals the political and economic tensions surrounding working class women'(2). Even Margaret says â€Å"Bessie’s comments address the specific problems of working-class women, problems that both unions and the middle class have an interest in ignoring. Even when Bessie’s religious beliefs and her questioning of unionism are considered she is very revealing, Margaret sees her as having â€Å"a politics of her own† which both reveals her sense of disenfranchisement from the ongoing struggle between masters and men and presents the most telling evidence in the novel of the iniquities of the class system. Something else that has to be considered in this scenario with Bessie as a dramatic tool towards Gaskell’s social commentary Elizabeth Gaskells North and south: A National Bildungsroman. Victorian Newsletter 85 (1994) Briefly traces the emergence of and critical debate on the industrial novel, noting the industrial novels have been read largely in relation to male working-class history, not in relation to female working-class history or to the emerging nineteenth-century womens movement. The critic also goes on to stipulate that the comments on the patriarchal foundations of both Chartism and the union movement makes a case for the need to consider Marxist and feminist issues when considering the issues raised in north and south. He goes on to suggest that by placing her heroine, Margaret Hale, between North and South, Gaskell attempts to bring to the surface the unconscious bifurcations that produce class and gender ideologies and that because the novel is both a Bildungsroman as well as an industrial novel it acquires unusual dimensions in both categories(3). Feminism also plays a big part in Gaskell’s novel, through her three main characters, Margaret, Thornton and Higgins Gaskell shows a struggle for growth and indicates what the future of society may hold for people in similar situations and how society can grow as a whole. When the novel is examined as a debate on class and gender issues, the amount of time the characters spend arguing about word choices, definitions and analogies it is clear that almost all interactions in the novel are affected in some way by gender or class, even in language, every term that comes under debate is changed with class or gender import(4). With this much importance forced upon the character’s class and gender by their social environment a reader is certainly inclined to read the novel as an exploration into the Victorian class system rather than a conventional love story of the time. Even in Margaret’s romantic capacity as a woman, her gradual sexual awareness of John Thornton and their Marriage at the end of the novel is more understandable to read in a more feminist light than a romantic one. In marrying Thornton Margaret enters into a mutually equal relationship, one where her influence and goals will be felt as well as his, through Margaret, Gaskell subtly reveals the new directions women are taking toward independent action and freedom(5). However at the same time recognizing that the changes she undergoes are in no way revolutionary and that though the conflicting ideas of obedience and freedom are not completely settled by the end of the novel, at least one woman has emerged into responsible adulthood and has claimed her part in deciding the terms of that settlement(6). What is most interesting about this novel is that all the elements of a romantic novel are there, but it is written in a way that turns the readers head from the sentimental pride and prejudice Esq. prose and makes them focus on the environment and its social deficiencies â€Å"through this story of social rejection and Christian compassion, Gaskell charges her culture to replace what she sees as a rigid and reductive old testament ethic of charity(7). This idea of a old to new change in a religious sense is also backed by Gaskell’s own Unitarian background, her father was a Unitarian minister, as was her husband, Margaret’s father in the novel itself is also a minister it could even be suggested that Gaskells beliefs provided her with an alternative vision of society and code of behavior(8) the importance of Gaskells religious beliefs and Unitarianism can be found in many aspects of the novel, not least that Unitarianism believed in the cultivation of the intellect regardless of sex, she found the religious authority to challenge the patriarchal subjugation of women, especially those who failed to fulfill their designated role in society. It is ironic to think; in a period nearly defined by its theological doubt, Gaskells spiritual faith authorizes her revolutionary vision(9). When Mr. Thornton, without further verbal explication, proposes to Margaret in a â€Å"strange and presumptuous way† at the end of the novel, we see the proper structure of an intimate relationship, both sides respect each other’s power while Thornton refuses to impose a political hierarchy. This is emphasized by the exchange over the flowers, which he bought as a token of her independent self, which is a revolutionary idea in itself at this point in history and conversely, gives rise to his second comment referring to marriage as possession, saying he had â€Å"no hope of ever calling her mine†, and the second refutation of such terms. Although the novel does not strive at any point to be romantic at the expense of the real issues that Gaskell tackles in the way people lived at the time, their unspoken resolution to marry signifies the resolution of the novel the binding of two genders, halves of England, social classes, and individuals, into one. In conclusion Gaskell is very successful in going further than any of her peers in actually exploring deficiencies in Victorian culture and society, although the main components of a classic love story are there, Margaret opts for the conscientious, religious option at every turn making the novel more a serious social commentary than anything else. Gaskell’s religious persuasion adds to this in that it allows her to transcend the class system and her constraints as a woman in Victorian England to address these problems under the banner of religion.

Maksym Berezovsky :: Musician Music Berezovsky Ukranian Essays

Maksym Berezovsky People are heroes in their own countries for different reasons. George Washington in the United States for being the first president and helping win independence, Ghandi in India for peacefull leadership, Churchill in Britian for his leadership, and Maksym Berezovsky in Ukraine. Berezovsky was not a war hero or a political figure. He was the first Ukrainian to be known throughout Europe.[2] He was the first Ukrainian to compose a symphony, opera and violin sonata.[3] To be considered the first is a special honor that he did not reieve until 2002 when a sonata of his was found in the Vatican by Steven Fox.[4] Some people say that only men of great genius can write a good symphony, and Berezovsky wrote more than a few so that makes him very special. Maksym Berezovsky came into this world in a way that befuddles historiographers. Nobody is certain when he was born. Scholars best guess from several older sources are that he was born in mid October of 1745 in the town of Hlukhiv.[5] By most, if not all, accounts he went to school at the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. This academy was very well known for its musical teaching and students often made careers out of their music. Berezovsky parlaid his time there into a stint at the imperial court choir in St. Petersburg. This was the stepping stone for what was to become a storied career. After his time in the imperial choir, Berezovsky moved to Italy to sing opera for the Italian opera company in Oranienbaum. He was only about 15 at the time so this was quite impressive. Five years he stayed there and sang until the highly acclaimed Giovanni Martini took him under his wing. Along with a friend, Josef Myslivecek, he wrote an exam to compose a polyphonic work.[7] Berezovsky piece was so good that it is still kept on file to this day. In 1771 he earned the title of maestro di musica[8], which was a very high honor indeed. Maksym Berezovsky :: Musician Music Berezovsky Ukranian Essays Maksym Berezovsky People are heroes in their own countries for different reasons. George Washington in the United States for being the first president and helping win independence, Ghandi in India for peacefull leadership, Churchill in Britian for his leadership, and Maksym Berezovsky in Ukraine. Berezovsky was not a war hero or a political figure. He was the first Ukrainian to be known throughout Europe.[2] He was the first Ukrainian to compose a symphony, opera and violin sonata.[3] To be considered the first is a special honor that he did not reieve until 2002 when a sonata of his was found in the Vatican by Steven Fox.[4] Some people say that only men of great genius can write a good symphony, and Berezovsky wrote more than a few so that makes him very special. Maksym Berezovsky came into this world in a way that befuddles historiographers. Nobody is certain when he was born. Scholars best guess from several older sources are that he was born in mid October of 1745 in the town of Hlukhiv.[5] By most, if not all, accounts he went to school at the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy. This academy was very well known for its musical teaching and students often made careers out of their music. Berezovsky parlaid his time there into a stint at the imperial court choir in St. Petersburg. This was the stepping stone for what was to become a storied career. After his time in the imperial choir, Berezovsky moved to Italy to sing opera for the Italian opera company in Oranienbaum. He was only about 15 at the time so this was quite impressive. Five years he stayed there and sang until the highly acclaimed Giovanni Martini took him under his wing. Along with a friend, Josef Myslivecek, he wrote an exam to compose a polyphonic work.[7] Berezovsky piece was so good that it is still kept on file to this day. In 1771 he earned the title of maestro di musica[8], which was a very high honor indeed.

Wal-Mart: Ethical or Unethical

Wal-Mart: Ethical or Unethical? Almost everyone living in North America undoubtedly knows what Wal-Mart is and has already conceived some sort of opinion, whether it is good or bad. On one hand people complain that they are ruining competition, they are treating their employees’ terribly or that they are given extreme unfair advantages that no other company receives. However, on the other spectrum there are those that believe in the free market, as well as those that say Wal-Mart is cutting down the cost for low to average income families’ cost of living or even those who claim that although wages are not perfect they are in fact employing a large amount of people whom would otherwise not have a job. Whichever end of the spectrum your beliefs may lay, there is no doubt that Wal-Mart does create very affordable prices for those families in need; however are these incredibly low prices taking an even greater toll on Wal-Mart employees and community members? Throughout this paper we will explore the two main ideas of whether Wal-Mart’s way of conducting business is ethical or unethical, and let you decide which end of the spectrum you are on. The American Economy is built upon Capitalistic Principles. American’s have pride in their free market economy with the largest GDP in the world. Income in a capitalist system takes at least two forms, profit and wages. Profits are used to expand a company, creating more jobs and wealth. Every company’s primary goal is to produce profit. The means by which each company produces profit contrasts in accordance with the market said company is in. Companies can attempt to differentiate themselves in their business model but generally certain sectors of the market produce similar profit strategies. Wal-Mart’s strategy relies upon low-wage labor by discouraging the unionization of its employees. Wal-Mart’s strategy of low-wage labor to reduce their costs is hardly unique. Wal-Mart’s competitors: Target, Kmart Corp. and Home Depot all pay similar wages and give comparable benefits. Competition arises when more than one producer is trying to sell the same or similar products to the same buyers. Competition leads to innovation and more affordable prices. Economic freedom is afforded to the private sector (such as Wal-Mart, Kroger, etc. ), allowing the private sector to make the majority of economic decisions in determining the direction and scale of what the U. S. economy produces. Relatively low levels of regulation and government involvement enhance this. Although Wal-Mart's revenues are greater than the combined sales of its top competitors Target, Sears Roebuck, Costco Wholesale, Home Depot and The Kroger Co, Wal-Mart needs to continue its business strategy (including low-wages) in order to keep the edge it has built. Wal-Mart is one of the biggest employers in the United States, with 1. 4 million associates. Wal-Mart is not only one of the largest employers in the United States but the largest in Mexico and one of the largest in Canada. Wal-Mart is also a diverse employer with more than 257,000 African American associates, more than 41,000 Asian, 5,900 Pacific Islander, 171,000 Hispanic, 16,000 American Indian, and 869,000 women associates. Along with the diverse employment the majority of the employees work full time. Wal-Mart full time average hourly wage is $11. 5 and is even higher in urban areas. Employees can receive performance-based bonuses and receive opportunities for advancement. Wal-Mart grants â€Å"full time† benefits to those working as little as 34 hours per week, but does not limit workers to just 34 hours per week. Wal-Mart has a health care benefit for all of its employees and recently announced that over 1. 2 million associates are covered under its healthcare program a nd the number of uninsured associates dropped by nearly 25 percent in the past year and more than 40 percent between 2007 and 2009. Both full time and part time can be eligible for health benefits. The benefits are for all levels of the company from the part times workers to the full time managers. Along with all the health care benefits, Wal-Mart also added a new program called â€Å"Life with Baby,† in which the program helps mothers and their babies get a healthy start for the child’s life. Wal-Mart saves money for families. Wal-Mart has health care benefits for 94. 5 percent of their employees worldwide. One of Wal-Mart's biggest goals is to save families money. In 2006 Wal-Mart saved American families on average $2,500. Saving money means more money in consumer pockets, which also in turn mean more business for other businesses. Wal-Mart is helping the economy by saving money for families with their lower prices. First of all, according to the document Wal-Mart provides unequal salary payment to men and women. The company uses gender discrimination to scale the wage difference to pay for it employees, which is unethical for employees’ job opportunity. Moreover, it is unfair when both men and women do the same job in the store, but women get less money than men do. In 2001, six women sued Wal-Mart in California claiming the company discriminated against them by systematically denying them promotions and paying them less than men. The lawsuit has expanded to potentially the largest class action in U. S. history – on behalf of more than 1 million current and former female employees. While two-thirds of the company's hourly workers are female, women hold only one-third of managerial positions and constitute less than 15 percent of store managers. The suit also claims that women are pushed into â€Å"female† departments and are demoted if they complain about unequal treatment. One plaintiff, a single mother of four, started at Wal-Mart in 1990 at a mere $3. 85 an hour. Even with her persistent requests for training and promotions, it took her eight years to reach $7. 32 an hour and seven years to reach management, while her male counterparts were given raises and promotions much more quickly. Secondly, the Chinese employees working for 24 hours a day and seven days a week all year round, and their wage is about $3. 0 per day. The company has factory in China and it offers a low quality of life and poor work environment. Wal-Mart also charges apartment and utilities fees from the factory workers before paying their salaries. Moreover, if the workers want to move out from the dorm, they still have to pay for the apartment rent to the company. Wal-Mart is paying eleven million dollars to settle Federal allegations it used illegal immigrants to clean its stores and also Wal-Mart is facing a class-action lawsuit for discrimination against $1. 6 million former and current female employees. Wal-Mart keeps its wages low even by general industry standards. The average supermarket employee makes $10. 35 per hour. Sales clerks at Wal-Mart, on the other hand, made only $8. 23 per hour on average, or $13,861 per year, in 2001. About one-third of Wal-Mart's employees are part-time, restricting their access to benefits. These low wages complicate employees' ability to obtain essential benefits, such as health care coverage. All in all, Wal-Mart's success has meant downward pressures on wages and benefits, rampant violations of basic workers' ights, and threats to the standard of living in communities across the country. The success of a business need not come at the expense of workers and their families. Such short-sighted profit-making strategies ultimately undermine our economy. In conclusion, Wal-Mart is undoubtedly making the lives of millions of consumer’s much easier, but is it coming at too big of a cost to those that are employed by them? This is really the basis of the whole ethical versus unethical argument, and in the end both sides will probably never be able to come to an agreement. The fact of the matter is this, in order for a corporation to grow to the magnitude of Wal-Mart there has to be millions, if not billions of people who continue to shop there and keep putting their money into it. So the next time you are at Wal-Mart you need to ask yourself, is this low price coming at too high of a cost to employees and community members? If the answer is no, then purchase that item, but if the answer is yes go ahead and walk out of the store to shop somewhere else. Just remember with whatever decision you make, the decision is always yours to choose where you will consume.

Shaping, Chaining, and Reinforcement Schedules in Prison Essay

Shaping, Chaining, and Reinforcement Schedules in Prison: A Review Shaping, chaining and reinforcement schedules are learning theories utilized in operant conditioning to change individual behaviors. Shaping involves teaching new behaviors in steps. An individual shapes their behaviors when they are rewarded for closely or perfectly mastering a step in the behaviors modification. Chaining is the links that are made from one step to another in the behavior modification. Reinforcement schedules are the rewards and punishments given when an individual masters or refuses to master a step in the shaping of a behavior. Operant conditioning incorporates the use of shaping, chaining and reinforcing behaviors in order to create a desirable outcome in the behaviors of an individual. Shaping, chaining and reinforcement schedules are utilized in schools, homes, and prisons across the world. In the prison environment they are used to change inmate’s behaviors, and help inmates get ready to reenter society as productive members. Prisons utilize the various steps of operant conditioning to aide in changing all sorts of behaviors including anger management. Shaping and Chaining Shaping and chaining behavior is a key part of the learning theory known as operant conditioning. Operant conditioning Shaping takes place when an individual is rewarded for a acceptable response to a stimulus. In an anger management program an individual would be rewarded for the reaction to anger and the ability to manage anger. An individual would be rewarded for managing anger when presented with stimuli that triggers anger and punished when failing to manage anger when presented with stimuli that trigger anger. At first then inmate might be reward for not becoming physically aggressive when presented with the stimuli that triggers anger. Over time the inmate would not be rewarded unless management is displayed without verbal or physical aggression. The reward for the anger management displayed by inmates would decrease as the management techniques improve. Chaining would occur when the inmate is able to move from one step to another in their ability to manage their anger. Reinforcement Schedules Reinforcement schedules are the rewards and punishments utilized in conjunction with shaping and chaining in operant conditioning of behaviors.  Rewards are utilized to encourage the right responses to stimuli while punishments are utilized to consequence or discourage any responses that are not close to the desired response to a stimulus. As an individual chains the responses and shapes anger management behaviors they are rewarded and learn to utilize anger management in place of old behaviors. The use of rewards is phased out when an individual utilizes the anger management responses instead of the originally responses to stimuli that create anger. Rewards and sanctions are key to shaping any behavior (Carey & Carter, 2009). Literature Review Research shows that the utilization of positive reinforcement in inmates produces positive results in shaping behaviors (Thomas, 2001). According to Fishbein, Sheppard, Hyde, Hubal, Newlin, Serin, Chrousos, & Alesci; â€Å"Executive cognitive functioning and emotional regulation may play a key role in treatment responsively† (2009 p.419). Burdon, St. De Lore & Prendergast report that behaviorally based protocol that involves the systematic application of positive reinforcement following demonstration of a desired behavior in drug treatment programs have proven to promote the shaping of inmate behaviors (2012). â€Å"Although historically sanctions have been used as the primary method to respond to or control offenders’ behavior, research indicates that positive reinforcement should be applied more frequently than negative reinforcement when trying to change behavior† (Carey & Carter, 2009 p.9) Most experts in psychology and criminal justice agree anger is problem atic when it is too frequent, too intense, too prolonged, or managed ineffectively (Smith, Smith & Beckner, 1994). Smith, Smith & Beckner discuss a research study in which anger management workshops were utilized in a women’s correctional facility (1994). In this study women were taught anger management skills over the duration of three sessions (1994). The inmates were taught anger management skills and reported feeling better about themselves and their ability to cope with stimuli that triggers anger (1994). Reinforcement schedules are shown to be more effective in women inmates (1994). Shaping of inmate behaviors in drug treatment programs with the use of reinforcement schedules have been researched and findings have been promising (Burdon, St. De Lore & Prendergast, 2012). The shaping of anger management behaviors in inmates is possible with positive  reinforcement schedules. Inmates do well when positive reinforcements for behaviors are given (Seirn & Hanby, 2009). As Burdon, St. De Lore & Prendergast explains, inmates are constantly being given punishments and acknowledged for the negative behaviors displayed (2009). When punishments are strip away replace with positive reinforcement there is a significant change in the behavi ors exhibited by inmates (Smith & Schweitzer, 2012). Individuals receiving positive attention of behaviors exhibit more positive behaviors to get the attention desired. The same can be said in the prison setting. Individuals need to be taught new ways to deal with anger, and the prison environment offers a unique environment to reshape the very behaviors and beliefs that contributed to an individual being placed in there. Inmates imprisoned for acts of violence due to the lack of anger management skills will only reenter the prison system for the same acts if not taught a different way to cope with stimuli that triggers anger. Implementing anger management skills to inmates with anger management issues would reduce the likelihood of reentry. Shaping and chaining the way in which inmates respond to anger can result in lifelong effective implementation of anger management skills by inmates. Shaping would occur by first helping inmate identify stimuli that triggers anger. Once inmates know what triggers anger, next the teaching of anger management skills can take place. When inmates utilize the anger management skills in place of the natural reaction for situations that trigger anger, rewards would be given. By implementing reinforcements for the utilization of anger management skills inmates learn the acceptable responses to stimuli of anger. The goal would be to effectively shape the anger management skills utilized by inmates without the need for reinforcement. For example, instead of becoming violent, an inmate would walk away. Conclusion The utilization if positive reinforcement schedules have been proven to be effective in prisons across the United States. Anger management programs have not always proven to be successful within prisons. Shaping and chaining of anger can be done within the prison system through the implementation of anger management workshops and reinforcements schedules. Several studies have shown the successes of positive reinforcement with inmates. Combining anger management shaping with reinforcement schedules could prove to  increase the likelihood of success in anger management programs offered to inmates. References Butdon, W., St. De Lore, J., Prendergast, M. (2012). Developing and implementing a positive behavioral reinforcement intervention in prison-based drug treatment: Project BRITE. Journal of Phychoactive Drugs, 7, 40-50 Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3429341/ Casey, M., & Carter, M. Center for Effective Public Policy. (2009) Shaping offender behavior. Retrieved from http://www.cepp.com/documents/Shaping%20Offender%20Behavior.pdf Fishbein, D., Sheppard, M., Hyde, C., Hubal, R., Newlin, D., Serin, R., Chrousos, G., & Alesci, S. (2009). Deficits in behavioral inhibition predict treatment engagement in prison inmates. Law and Human Behavior, 33(5), 419-35. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10979-008-9163-7 Serin, R., Hanby, L. Correctional Service Canada. (2009). Offender incentive and behavioural management. Retrieved from http://www.csc-scc.gc.ca/research/005008-0214-01-eng.shtml strategies. Smith, P. & Schweitzer, M. (2012). The therapeutic prison. Journal of Con temporary Criminal Justice, 28(1), 7-22. doi: 10.1177/1043986211432201 Thomas, S. P. (2001). Teaching healthy anger management. Perspectives in Psychiatric Care, 37(2), 41-8. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/200754284?accountid=458

Why Learning Fractions Is so Important

Why Learning Fractions Is so Important It seems that many teachers will agree that teaching fractions can be complex and confusing, but that understanding fractions is a necessary skill for students to have as they get older. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution addresses how math is being taught in a recent article titled, Are we forcing too many students to take high-level math theyll never use? The author, Maureen Downey, notes that as a nation, we keep raising the bar for our students math performance, and observes that despite these high-level courses, many students are struggling with the complex teachings. Some teachers argue that schools may be advancing students too quickly, and they arent truly mastering basic skills like fractions. While some higher-level math courses are only crucial for certain industries, basic mathematical skills like understanding fractions, are crucial for everyone to master. From cooking and carpentry to sports and sewing, we cant escape fractions in our daily lives. Fractions Can Be Hard to Learn This isnt a new topic of discussion. In fact, in 2013, an article in the Wall Street Journal talked about what parents and teachers already know when it comes to math- fractions are hard for many students to learn. In fact, the article cites statistics that half of eighth graders can’t put three fractions in order of size. As many students struggle to learn fractions, which usually are taught in third or fourth grade, the government is actually funding research into how to help kids learn fractions. Instead of using rote methods to teach fractions or relying on old techniques such as pie charts, the newer methods of teaching fractions use techniques to help kids really understand what fractions mean through number lines or models. For example, the educational company, Brain Pop, offers animated lessons and homework help to aid kids in understanding concepts in math and in other subjects. Their Battleship Numberline allows kids to bomb a battleship using fractions between 0 and 1, and after students play this game, their teachers have found that the students intuitive knowledge of fractions increases. Other techniques to teach fractions include cutting paper into thirds or sevenths to see which fraction is bigger and what denominators mean. Other approaches include using new terms for words such as â€Å"denominator† such as â€Å"the name of the fraction,† so students understand why they can’t add or subtract fractions with different denominators. Using number lines helps kids compare different fractions- something that is hard for them to do with traditional pie charts, in which a pie divided into pieces. For example, a pie divided into sixths can look a lot like a pie divided into sevenths. In addition, the newer approaches emphasize understanding how to compare fractions before students go on to learn procedures such as adding, subtracting, dividing, and multiplying fractions. In fact, according to the Wall Street Journal article, placing fractions on a number line in the correct order in third grade is a more important predictor of fourth-grade math performance than calculation skills or even the ability to pay attention. In addition, studies show that a student’s ability to understand fractions in fifth grade is also a predictor of long-term math achievement in high school, even after controlling for IQ, reading ability, and other variables. In fact, some experts regard the understanding of fractions as the door to later math learning, and as the foundation of more advanced math and science classes such as algebra, geometry, statistics, chemistry, and physics. The Importance of Understanding Fractions in Early Grades Math concepts such as fractions that students do not master in the early grades can go on to confuse them later on and to cause them a great deal of math anxiety. The new research shows that students need to intuitively understand concepts rather than just to memorize language or symbols, as such rote memorization does not lead to long-term understanding. Many math teachers do not realize that the language of math can be confusing to students and that students must understand the concepts behind the language. Students who attend public schools now must learn to divide and multiply fractions by fifth grade, according to federal guidelines known as the Common Core Standards that are followed in most states. Studies have shown that public schools outperform private schools in math, partly because public school math teachers are more likely to know and follow the latest research related to teaching math. Even though most private school students do not need to demonstrate mastery of Common Core Standards, private school math teachers can also use new techniques to teach students fractions, thereby opening the door to later math learning.

Down Syndrome Represented in the Society Essays

Down Syndrome Represented in the Society Essays Down Syndrome Represented in the Society Paper Down Syndrome Represented in the Society Paper Down syndrome is caused by the presence of extra genetic material from the 21st chromosome. Approximately, majority of the individuals with Down syndrome have an extra 21st chromosome and are identified as having â€Å"trisomy 21† subtype. Individuals with Down syndrome often suffer from moderate to severe mental retardation, show expressive language delays with relative strengths in pragmatical versus grammatical language abilities, and exhibit relative strengths in visual over auditory/ verbal memory. Down syndrome is associated with a greater risk of developing a range of serious health problems, such as hearing deficits, heart defects, leukemia, hypothyroidism, and gastrointestinal disorders. In reality, in the 1990s, the developmental outcome of children with Down syndrome has greatly improved because of early learning programs, physician and parent updated education about the syndrome, and appropriate medical management. According to factual evidences, intelligence and personality in a child with Down syndrome are affected by dedicated parents just as they are in non-Down syndrome children. Down syndrome patients are most of the time implied as defectives of the society to the point that they are even hindered from the basic human rights, such as detainment, physical abuse, and other sorts of violence. As their numbers continue to grow in the society, various conceptual frameworks, and theoretical perspectives have sprouted in aid to promote acceptance of these individuals. However, representations of these Down syndrome patients still vary as influenced by social and cultural factors. Scope and Limitations The study aims to illustrate the occurring trend of societal representations of the conditions of Down syndrome. The perspective of society over these individuals as well as the prevalent view, either discriminative of receptive, shall be covered in the course discussion. The study shall employ statistic counts of Down syndrome specifically in the United States, which is the primary scope of setting. In addition, the study aims to utilize the conceptual frameworks applied in the course discussion of the said condition. Applying models shall be the prime method of depiction on how society views these individuals. Various standard norms and prevailing cultural etiologies shall be utilized as well in order to validate the claimed results of the research. The following shall be the objectives utilized in the overall research course. These shall serve as the prime guidelines for the conduction of the whole research plan. a. To be able to provide social representations of Down syndrome patients prevailing in the society through the use of theoretical models. b. To be able to compare and contrast the view of the society against this condition through the use of governing norms and perspectives in the society. Purpose of the Study Significantly, the study provides awareness expansion in terms of the society’s perception over Down syndrome patients. By knowing the established perception of the current prevailing norms of the society against this condition, it facilitates ease in developing health promotive, and organizational programs in aid of this condition. In addition, awareness of such subject induces an initiative to help improve the quality of life for these individuals. Discussion Down syndrome is the most prevalent chromosome-related disorders, which is often suspected after birth due to the physical appearance of the baby. As noted in the latter statement, the presence of an extra chromosome 21 in either the sperm or the egg cell causes the condition of Down syndrome. Chromosome 21 us the smallest of the human chromosomes and contains about 255 genes. The majority of children with Down syndrome, which is around 95%, possess trisomy 21- an extra chromosome in all their cells. Other individuals, which are around 3-4%, possess translocated form of the extra chromosome wherein the extra chromosome 21 is attached to one of a different chromosome pair, and last among the types is 1-2% mosaic, which pertains to varying count of trisomic cells while others a re normal in structure and characteristics. However, the type of chromosome pattern does not significantly alter the pattern of learning difficulties that usually accompany Down syndrome (Buckley, 2000 p. 9). Children with Down syndrome are born at the same rate to parents of all social and education levels, in all ethnic groups and to parents of all ages. Although the risk of having a child with Down syndrome increases with maternal age, a baby with Down syndrome can be born to a mother of any age (Buckley, 2000 p. 9). However, Down syndrome patients are not entirely bound to live in an abnormal environment in accordant to their condition. In fact, various organization and sectors in society encourage the normal living of these individuals. All children with Down syndrome should stay with the family, and most can be mainstreamed into kindergarten (Cicchetti and Beeghly, 1999 p. 302). It is essential to use measures for Down syndrome to monitor growth and development. In the advent of their maturation and growth, most of these individuals with Down syndrome are able to leave home, work, and form relationships. In fact, some are even noted to have the capacity to handle their own family (Taylor and David, 2005 p. 41) Scientific and medical research on Down syndrome is gaining momentum. Research is continuing on identifying the genes in chromosome 21 that cause the characteristics of Down syndrome. According to the National Down Syndrome Society, it will be possible eventually to improve, correct, and prevent many of the problems associated with Down syndrome. There is hope that in the future, the ongoing research on Down syndrome will lead to development of an intervention and cure (Nielsen, 2002 p. 61). Down Syndrome Statistics Down syndrome was the first intellectual disability described and is the most common genetic form of intellectual disability. Due to its frequency, the general-public is most aware of Down syndrome, and for many, it is the prototypical form of intellectual disability. Approximately 7000 infants are born in the United States each year with Down syndrome. In fact, Down syndrome accounts for approximately one-third of children in special education (Harris, 2005 p. 194). The condition is not attributable to any behavioral activity of the parents or environmental etiologies, although some research on environment counters such statement. The probability that another child with Down syndrome will be born in a subsequent pregnancy is approximately 1%, regardless of maternal age. However, a number of risk factors have been investigated, including geographic location, race, ethnicity, season of birth and environmental hazards; however, none of these have been found relevant to affect the occurrence of the said condition (Harris, 2005 p. 194). The incidence of trisomy 21 correlates strongly with increasing maternal age children of older mothers has much greater risk of having Down syndrome. Up to mid-30s, women have a constant risk of giving birth to a trisomic child of about one per 1000 live births. Incidence then increases sharply to 1 in 30 at age 45 years (Jobling, 2006). The estimated incidence of Down syndrome is between 1 in 800-1,200 live births. The risk of a mother having a second child with Down syndrome is 1% regardless of maternal age, unless the syndrome is associated with translocation of chromosome 21 (Rubin and Strayer, 2007 p. 190). Medical Model- Genetic Testing and Perspectives In general, Down syndrome samples and normal or other mentally retarded groups of similar mental or chronological age have been compared at a single point in time. Medical practitioner perceives the condition more of a genetic disorder than a pathological disease. Guided by the principle of naturalism and existence, the health care practitioners further view the person with Down syndrome in a biological means rather than the sociological and physical morphology in order to deliver the rightful care (Rogers and Coleman, 2002 p. 8). To some point of logic, these practitioners possess the capacity to analyze and predetermine the conditions of these individuals. Most often than not, medical field comprehends the totality of the Down syndrome’s behavior, attitude and perception towards their environment. However, the burden takes in since, the actual condition still possess no cure, but only therapeutic procedurals and pharmacologic therapy for symptoms. In addition, genetic preview is the prime intervention that they can do in order to prevent further progression of the condition, or the conception itself. Genetic tests involve laboratory analyses of chromosomes, genes, or gene products (enzymes of proteins) to detect a gene alteration that can be the etiological agent or is likely to induce a specific genetic disorder or condition. Genetic testing can be DNA- or RNA-based, chromosomal, or biochemical in nature and procedurals, which possess various advantage and disadvantages. Genetic tests are currently used to predict risk of disease, to screen newborns for genetic conditions, to screen pregnant women for risk of genetic conditions, fore prenatal or clinical diagnoses or prognoses, and to direct clinical care. The procedures of chorionic villus sampling and amniocentesis are the primary genetic testing involved in the detection of Down syndrome (Jenkins and Lea, 2004 p. 75). Parental and Public Model: Perspective of Parents and Community One of the impending fears of the parents, especially the conceiving mothers, is to have their child born with abnormalities and conditions, especially those genetic in nature that usually possess no direct treatment. The anxiety that occurs to the parents is usually the conceptual urge that they might not be able to acquire a normal family with an abnormal condition of their child, such as those with Down syndrome (Harris, 2005 p. 194). The condition is permanent and, most likely, gradually modifiable accompanied by costly therapies and treatments. Such condition is very much frustrating and disappointing especially for the parents. Most often than not, families with Down syndrome patients view their child as an inactive, unproductive, and to the point of insignificance. In fact, they nurse and nurture the child until they serve their burden character in the family, which triggers further depression, anxiety and frustration among these parents. In addition, the fear of having another child or future conceptions may be affected if a Down syndromic child has been born in their lineage. The family expansion tends to be withdrawn and halted, or to the point of family breakdown (Place, 2007). However, such perception is not considered to be the overall established mechanism of Down syndrome child management in the family. Other informed and educated families, despite of their child’s condition, even enhances their child’s development, nurture the fad in which they are in, enhances social interaction, and further development (Harris, 2005 p. 194; Place, 2007). Although, some point of these procedures require costly services especially for special child care and affiliations to such institutions. Model Applications: Societal Perception towards the Condition Behaviorism, humanism, and sociological labeling are some of the theoretical concepts that govern the attitude of community over these individuals. As the condition of Down syndrome progresses, the impact of various historical evolutions on the disease progression has greatly influenced the society’s perception over these individuals. In the past, the occurrence of these conditions had been attributed to Mongolian–like appearance; hence, connoted as mongoloids (Rogers and Coleman, 2002 p. 8). However, this notion did not remain in the society, and soon after, it was also discarded. Behaviorism Theoretical Model Behaviorism is the theoretical concept that mainly focuses on behavioral patterns, motives, and actions of individuals towards other subjects. The concept played a major explanation for the occurrence of such community perception towards Down syndrome patients. The focus is on specific behavior, and the orientation is very much on the here and now. The basic principle underlying behaviorism is that all behavior is learned (Vito etal, 2007 p. 115). The fundamental behaviors are learned by operant conditioning and by imitation of other’s behavior. The condition of the learned behavior is strengthened by reward and avoidance of punishment or weakened by lack of reward and aversive stimuli. Whether a given behavior pattern persists depends on the differential reinforcement – the rewards and punishments attached to that behavior and the rewards and punishments attached to alternative behavior. In the past, children with the condition have experienced tremendous discrimination from their community. They have experienced social isolation due to the conditions of insurgence in behavior similarities. Community inscribed the conditions of these individuals as abnormals in the society; hence, validated by behavioral negativism, the abnormality viewed by the community has caused them to be discriminated (Harris, 2005 p. 194). However, such discrimination has been validated by the research conducted by Kliewer (1998) wherein literary discriminative behavior was proven if rightful or appropriate response towards such individuals. The methodology includes 10 students with Down syndrome that were examined for two annual periods. During the course of 2 school years, the research conducted tape-records of 45 observations and 12 interviews that resulted in 1,300 pages of field notes. The research reveled that the actual progression of condition does not affect the literary capacity of the individuals. In fact, the students have evidently manifested communicative directives over literary needs. Although, the researched behavior of these individuals have been validated to possess lesser response towards isolation (Kliewer, 1998). The unproductiveness and inactive character of Down syndrome patients have established the behavioral discriminative approach of the community towards these individuals. By the principle of operant conditioning, the community has instilled to their minds that such individuals are burdens of their families and of the society; hence, they are discriminated and not provided with equal rights. Humanism Theoretical Model Meanwhile, as the conceptual framework of humanism converges with the view of humanitarian help over such in-need individuals. The concept that prevails in Humanism is the value of human life itself, regardless of the person’s outward or inward status in terms of disease, financial nature, etc. As for this theoretical model, it depicts the equal rights of individuals to be imposed since, human beings are supposed to be valued above all else. The essential core of social environment should disregard the impairments of such individuals, and perceived them with equal view (Buckley, 2000 p. 9). The research of Appl (1998) has tried to validate possible benefits of Down syndrome in the enhancement of their societal relationships through adult-child interactions. The participants of the research include 26 families that possess at least one or more children with Down syndrome have been analyzed in a 10 years observation. The research has established inclusive criteria that require a family of complete members, particularly the parents, child’s age ranging from 7 to 15 years old, and validated assessment of capacity to properly deliver care for the individuals with Down syndrome. Meanwhile, the research also monitors the condition of 26 individuals with Down syndrome present in the orphanages with same age criterion to test any possible differences during span of growth. The methodology involves quarterly assessment of both mental, physical, and emotional stabilities of the subjects involved. Results revealed insignificant variations over the first 3 years; however, as the time pass by, behavioral changes and cognitive comprehension had increased on those individuals living in families. Such claim was validated through the use of paper and pencil exam that depicts simple picture identification tests, which revealed higher results ranging from an average score of 15 pts. out 20 pts. to perfect score. The score rating of family groups ranges from 14 pts. to 20 pts. with majority’s score of 17 pts. , while family groups of Down syndrome in orphanages revealed 9-13 pts. with 11pts. as the most predominant (Appl, 1998). Social Construction Theoretical Model Social model views disability as the result of a dynamic process involving complex interactions among biologic, behavioral, psychologic, social and environmental factors. The social model enables people with disabilities to look at themselves in a more positive way, which increases their self-esteem and independence. In addition, the model also advocates looking beyond a person’s impairment and functional limitation to all and equal participant in society (Brown et al. , 2006 p. 462). The model has been tested by the experiment of Gloria (2001) in the school setting in terms of Down syndrome children’s capacity to perform well in normal education firms. As opposed to the sociological labels implicated by the society over these individuals in terms of literary competence, and cognitive capacities most evidently in the past was validated by research of Gloria (2001). The procedure was supported by National Down Syndrome Society through the provision of list of affiliates all over United States as well as Puerto Rico. A total of 250 questionnaires were sent to those parents with and without child/children with Down syndrome that participated in the research. The design of the questionnaire contained four levels of questioning: 1) background experience of the teacher, including amount of teaching experience, knowledge of special education, and knowledge/attitude toward inclusion; 2) teacher preparation for inclusion by the district and/or parent, and the transition process of the student; 3) classroom information on curriculum used, class arrangement for instruction, and maintenance of therapies and support services; and 4) classroom management issues, including instructional and behavioral management strategies. The objective was to determine the methods that general educators felt effective or otherwise with the inclusion of children with Down syndrome in their general education classes. In addition, the survey aims to evaluate the education standards provided by the academic groups among Down syndrome patients, and consequent response (Gloria, 2001). The results of the surveys revealed that Down syndrome patients still posses the capacity to enter general educational firm (Gloria, 2001); hence, validating their capacity to outlive the discriminations implicated to them by the society. Such individuals still possess the capacity to enter and conform to human societal standards provided with proper, extensive and appropriate guidelines of modifications (Jobling, 2006). As with the research conducted, Down syndrome individuals may still possess the capacity to outlive their condition and live their life normally. The advantage of such model is the provision of probable humanitarian approach of equity towards these individuals. However, with the dynamic progression and varying capacity of Down syndrome individuals may compromise the claims of norm capacity, which is the prime disadvantage of the theoretical application. Further validation and research that conjure positive and similar results may prove the claims and validate the implicated statement. Summary and Conclusions As for the research arguments proposed in the study, the discriminative outlook of the society over these individuals is evidently negated. Down syndrome patients may possess actual evidence of defect yet the capacity to outlive and improve is still present among these individuals provided that proper guidance, upbringing, environment, and appropriate personnel are present in their social circle. As the behaviorist implies, the differentiation of the trisomic features and behavior have left these individuals discriminated, has been proven irrational in this research. The social label that such individuals are poor in cognition and developmental capacities has been negated by the humanistic approach of validation, which proves that enhancement and development among these individuals are still possible. References Appl, D. J. (1998, September 2). Children with Down Syndrome: implications for adult-child interactions in inclusive settings.. Journal of Research in Childhood Education , 64, 443-451. Reviews research on children with Down Syndrome, highlighting physical, medical, intellectual, language, and behavioral characteristics that provide valuable information for caregivers and teachers in planning and intervention. Reviews research on parent-child interactions, providing guidelines for caregivers and teachers working in inclusive settings. Suggests that interactions and environments must be adjusted to support the uniqueness of each child. Brown etal, S. P. (2006). Exercise Physiology: Basis of Human Movement in Health and Disease. Lippincott Williams Wilkins. Designed as the principal text for undergraduate courses in exercise physiology and science, this unique and informative text combines general undergraduate material with vital clinical information not found in competing resources. Key content includes detailed coverage of muscle physiology as well as evidence-based clinical information that helps students link theory to practice. Questions and answers help students review core material and reinforce concepts essential to effective practice. Abundant tables, graphs, and full-color illustrations support the text. Buckley, S. (2000). Living with Down Syndrome. The Down Syndrome Educational Trust. Offers a person-focused introduction to Down syndrome. This book explains the effects of Down syndrome on development, stressing that while individuals with Down syndrome do have special needs, they are people first, with the same rights and human needs as everyone else in their communities.

French Passive Constructions

French Passive Constructions Passive constructions are those in which a verbs action is performed on the subject, rather than the subject performing the action as in active (normal) constructions. The passive voice is the most common French passive construction, but there are a couple of others to watch out for as well. Other French Passive Constructions Passive Infinitive: Even though the French infinitive translates as to verb, the French infinitive sometimes needs to be preceded by a preposition. This is the case with the passive infinitive, which is commonly used with indefinite and negative words, such as Il ny a rien manger - Theres nothing to eat.Passive Reflexive: In the passive reflexive construction, a normally non-reflexive verb is used reflexively in order to express the passive nature of the action, as in Ça se voit - Thats obvious.Reflexive Causative: The reflexive causative (se faire infinitive) indicates something that happens to the subject, either per someone elses implied action or wish or unintentionally. Passive Reflexive in Detail In French (and English) it is preferable to avoid the passive voice. French has numerous constructions which are commonly used in place of the passive voice, one of which is the passive reflexive. The French passive reflexive is used in place of the passive voice in order to avoid naming the agent of a verb. The passive reflexive is formed with a noun or pronoun, then the reflexive pronoun se, and finally the appropriate verb conjugation (third-person singular or plural). In essence, this construction uses a non-reflexive verb reflexively in order to demonstrate the passive nature of the action. The literal translation of the French passive reflexive (something does something to itself) is strange to English ears, but its important to recognize this construction and understand what it actually means. Ça se voit. - Thats obvious.Ça saperà §oit peine. - Its hardly noticeable.Cela ne se dit pas. -  That isnt said.Ce livre se lit souvent. - This book is often read.Comment se prononce ce mot  ?  - How is this word pronounced?Comment à §a sà ©crit  ? (informal) - How is that spelled?Un homme sest rencontrà © hier. - A man was found yesterday.Un coup de tonnerre sest entendu. - A crash of thunder was heard.Les mà »res ne se vendent pas ici. - Blackberries are not sold here.Ce produit devrait sutiliser quotidiennement. - This product should be used daily.

GanGo Strategic Planning Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

GanGo Strategic Planning - Assignment Example It can be said that the strategic management plan that was designed and developed by the team of strategic management of CanGo was more of an emergent nature rather than that of a deliberate nature. It can be said that a strategic management plan that has been deliberately designed would have been more systematic and much more efficient in nature as compared to the current existent one. The deliberate approach would have a much more careful approach of the planning of the strategy while taking into account the various opinions of the team members as well as their decisions.In accounts of CanGo’s approach it can be said that the team was going for a on the need approach and was designing the strategy on the basis of the need faced by the company. Also, the conversation that took place between Clark and Ethel completely showed the fact that the staff was completely unaware of the company’s emerging plans to increasingly venture in to the online gaming market. Another fact that outlined and highlighted the very base that the entire strategy was designed by the top management without proper consideration of the relative advantages and disadvantages of venturing into the online gaming market is the factor concerning the ignorance of the financial implications of the company. Also, the management did not go for a review of the external conditions analysis of the macro environment which is considered a routine method in the application of a deliberate approach towards the planning of a strategy.... e process of proper planning of the sales strategy, while putting too much emphasis on the push factor rather than creating and maintaining equilibrium of the push and pull effect for the company’s product deliverables to the customers and clients. 2. It can be said that the strategic management plan that was designed and developed by the team of strategic management of CanGo was more of an emergent nature rather than that of a deliberate nature. It can be said that a strategic management plan that has been deliberately designed would have been more systematic and much more efficient in nature as compared to the current existent one. The deliberate approach would have a much more careful approach of the planning of the strategy while taking into account the various opinions of the team members as well as the advantages and disadvantages related to their decisions. In accounts of CanGo’s approach it can be said that the team was going for a on the need approach and was d esigning the strategy on the basis of the need faced by the company. Also, the conversation that took place between Clark and Ethel completely showed the fact that the staff was completely unaware of the company’s emerging plans to increasingly venture in to the online gaming market. Another fact that outlined and highlighted the very base that the entire strategy was designed by the top management without proper consideration of the relative advantages and disadvantages of venturing into the online gaming market is the factor concerning the ignorance of the financial implications of the company. Also, the management did not go for a review of the external conditions analysis of the macro environment which is considered a routine method in the application of a deliberate approach towards the

Bank failure in jamaica Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bank failure in jamaica - Essay Example According to Jenifer Daley, the banking industry in Jamaica relied on foreign-owned banks. Foreign heads managed these banks, and the banks depended on the requirements of foreign legislation. The banking industry in Jamaica was crowded with diverse financial institutions including building societies, credit unions, money markets, export-import banks and stock exchanges. Commercial banks dominated the financial sector, in Jamaica. This diversity led to the fragility within the banking environment and structure (Daley 4). The changes in the banking sector in 1990s showed these fragilities in the arrangement of the banking industry. This placed immense pressure on the institutional structure and financial resources. The banking environment in Jamaica resulted from immense deregulation of activities, in the financial sector. This increased competitive challenges for the financial firms and banks. This mandated a strong Central Bank with roles such as the formation of monetary policies and directing an orderly development and growth of the system. Additionally, the experienced growth in the industry provided a springboard for the establishment and proliferation of financial firms and groups with different structures. These structures contributed to the breakdown of operational safeguards because of their fashion of operations (Daley 3). The structures also pressurized the cadre of managers. The instability experienced in 1980-1990s led to the unfavorable macroeconomic climates because of no-growth on the real sector and high inflation. This led to the beginning of government guidelines in the industry. Later politics took a central role in the management of the financial sector. The Finance Minister controlled the Central National Bank and closed it because of insolvency. The bank was illiquid and insolvent than the financial statement of 1997 had indicated. The bank tried to hide this state by ignoring the provision of

Oedipus Rex Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Oedipus Rex - Assignment Example At the opening of the play, while the proximate event in the prophecy that Oedipus will murder his father being made known to Laius proceeds to the king’s action of casting out his son, the occurrence of the plague in Thebes makes the long-term event. Because of the plague itself, Oedipus necessitates to carry out a thorough investigation in determining the principal cause of the plague. The plague which the Thebes is stricken by is due to the unresolved case of the murdered Laius, king of Thebes and Creon figures out through the oracle that the plague’s precipitating dramatic event will dissolve the moment that the murderer is exiled from Thebes. Jocasta’s brother Creon expresses abnegation of kingship after the death of Laius for the sole reason that he finds no interest in ruling and the responsibility of freeing the city from the Sphinx. He feels less able to drive the plague away from Thebes so he proposes to offer the crown as well as his sister to anyone who bears the potential of answering the Sphinx’s riddle for he appears short of competence in this area. In the end, however, Creon becomes king on the ground that the sons of Oedipus Eteocles and Polynices contending for the throne die of slaying each

Project Report Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Project Report - Research Paper Example Secondly, the research project looks at teamwork in relation to Lazear and Gibbs giving an analysis of the benefits associated with teamwork in the organization. Thirdly, the research project identifies the research methods that were used in the research project giving information in relation to the methodology. Additionally, the research gives an analysis of the research question indicating how teamwork has been effective in many organizations. Lastly, the project concludes the research by giving a recap of the issues that have been discussed in the research project. Teamwork has been held to be the most appropriate form of working in any setup in an organization. This is because through teamwork people or employees in the organization brainstorm in order to bring productivity and achieve the goals and objectives of the organization. A team is defined as an aggregation of employees performing a collective task. The team may be led by a joint decision making body or an individual. Therefore, teamwork is work completed by several associates with each individual doing a part, but all subordinating personal importance to the efficiency of the whole. Teamwork is advocated by many organizations because it increases productivity, as well as, ensuring job satisfaction. Problem solving role that is played by teamwork because when people work together they tend to solve issues quickly and adequately unlike when a person is working alone. The research project will focus on designing a teamwork setting that will enhance the productivity of the organization, as well as, solve problem and minimize job dissatisfaction. Employees are more satisfied with their work when they are working in a teamwork environment. In that, according to the Journal of Organization Behavior satisfied employees grow and thrive in an organization that allows teamwork where the organization increases the retention

Review of the Movie Bully Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Review of the Movie Bully - Essay Example We all know that movie making is a science in itself and the concerted effort of a team of talented and hard working individuals. Making a trailer is part of this process, in the sense that it works towards selling a movie that the team has worked hard to put together. With over 70% of the cinema industry now being dominated by Hollywood, there is also a dependence on the trailer of the movie when deciding if it is worth going spending the money to go watch a new movie or not. Therefore the trailer does play an important part and the making of the trailer can sell the movie as much as kill its revenue. We have often had the experience of coming out of a movie thinking that the movie trailer promised more than what the movie provided. That is the power of advertising. Based on this concept we can easily gauge that a trailer Has to be engaging enough to pique the curiosity of the audience. Has to give an idea of what the audience can expect from a movie. Has to be simple and easy for t he audience to relate to. Has to motivate them to go watch the movie. Based on the above, we will examine the movie trailer of â€Å"Bully†, a documentary based on the culture of bullying in schools around the United States. The documentary is directed by Lee Hirsch and was featured in the Tribeca Film festival in March 2011. The documentary takes us through many cities in the US and many elementary schools with stories of boys and girls who have been subjected to bullying and are relatively helpless in the situation. The movie project is one close to Hirsch’s heart as he himself was a victim of bullying in school. (Itman, 2011). The trailer of the movie, as seen on iTunes Movie trailers (2012) takes us through this journey in a way that is very different from what one would expect from such a powerful theme. Bullying in high schools is not a new issue; it is one that we are all familiar with, either by personal experience or association. Therefore the trailer does not need to sell the concept of bullying in schools. We already know that it is not acceptable and can have terrible consequences. Instead the trailer focuses on the reactions of the school board and the callous attitude shown towards the bullying by teachers and the school authorities. We even have a scene where there is a clipping of a child, Alex being strangled by a bully in the school bus and immediately after that is a clip where the school administrator claims that she has been on the same bus and noticed no such thing, in fact she goes further and describes them â€Å"as good as gold† (iTunes Trailer, 2012). Right there, the effect is created. There is a feeling of shocked speechlessness and the audience involuntarily gasp when watching that. â€Å"13 million kids will be bullied in the US this year† (iTunes Trailer, 2012). The trailer starts with that shocking message and then trails off into a series of interviews, reflections and demonstrations with a catchy an d happy upbeat tune in the background score, making the combination truly dramatic. It is a documentary based on a very serious and alarming issue but it seems to be focused more towards a positive theme, which children who have been bullied can relate to. There is a feeling of hope that is conveyed through the trailer. We are given a gist of the problem, a sense of the indifferent attitude of the school author

Project Report Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Project Report - Research Paper Example Secondly, the research project looks at teamwork in relation to Lazear and Gibbs giving an analysis of the benefits associated with teamwork in the organization. Thirdly, the research project identifies the research methods that were used in the research project giving information in relation to the methodology. Additionally, the research gives an analysis of the research question indicating how teamwork has been effective in many organizations. Lastly, the project concludes the research by giving a recap of the issues that have been discussed in the research project. Teamwork has been held to be the most appropriate form of working in any setup in an organization. This is because through teamwork people or employees in the organization brainstorm in order to bring productivity and achieve the goals and objectives of the organization. A team is defined as an aggregation of employees performing a collective task. The team may be led by a joint decision making body or an individual. Therefore, teamwork is work completed by several associates with each individual doing a part, but all subordinating personal importance to the efficiency of the whole. Teamwork is advocated by many organizations because it increases productivity, as well as, ensuring job satisfaction. Problem solving role that is played by teamwork because when people work together they tend to solve issues quickly and adequately unlike when a person is working alone. The research project will focus on designing a teamwork setting that will enhance the productivity of the organization, as well as, solve problem and minimize job dissatisfaction. Employees are more satisfied with their work when they are working in a teamwork environment. In that, according to the Journal of Organization Behavior satisfied employees grow and thrive in an organization that allows teamwork where the organization increases the retention

A Rose for Emily- William Faulkner Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

A Rose for Emily- William Faulkner - Essay Example Faulkner opened the story with the incident of Emily’s funeral and the townsfolk’s curiosity to see the inside of her house. The events that led to Emily’s behavior would be proffered to rationalize the climax manifesting the death of Emily’s object of affection. Emily’s character continues to intrigue analysts in terms of her being a villain or the victim in the story. The story was set in the county seat of Yoknapatawpha, Jefferson where focus was placed on Emily’s house, intricately described and used as a one of the prominent symbols of the story. A general setting was exhibited where events, especially the outcome of the tragic death of Homer and its discovery, unfolded through time. The point of view of †Ã¢â‚¬â„¢our whole town’ emerges the narrator of the story who poses an interesting limited omniscient narrating position for Faulkner to control. The author designates this narrator both as part of the "our whole town" and part of the supposed objectivity through whom the reader must envision the story† (Curry, 392).

Totalitarian Individualism Essay Example for Free

Totalitarian Individualism Essay Thesis:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Through the analysis of Hannah Arendt`s The Origins of Totalitarianism,   Frederick Nietzche`s Morality as Anti-Nature, and contemporary philosopher Scott Adam’s God’s Debris, this author will shed light on the human desire to follow trend, and validate Nietzche’s argument that devout faith in cause is the product of anxiety about the unknown.   This anxiety requires that their must be some form of structure, not necessarily full on totalitarianism, but not a society full of free thinking individuals either. Introduction:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In Hannah Arendt’s The Origins of Totalitarianism, he speaks on the origins of racism and what eventually led to Nazism.   He argues that the movement Hitler was able to form started as the result of apathetic and neutral masses that were oblivious to workings of their governments.   It is this type of majority that he credits as being the main provider of opportunity for a totalitarian minority to rule.   He talks about the social necessities for totalitarianism to strive, noting that those who aspire to total domination must liquidate all spontaneity, such as the mere existence of individuality will always engender, and track it down in its most private forms, regardless of how unpolitical and harmless these may seem (Arendt) The main focus of this ideology is to make one whole unit operating in the same given direction with absolutely no individual diverging parts.   Though Arendt acknowledges this to be a political tactic starting within national cultures and then working its way outward, the ideals inherent with this system of control are very telling about the human nature, and the human tendency to follow trend and form groups. This concept is very compatible with Scott Adam’s argument in his book God’s Debris. Adam’s initially presents his novel as a replacement for modern religions that find it hard to accommodate science within their canons.   He markets it as a new age creed to be followed by the next generation of masses.   Ironically, I fell for his ploy until reading Nietzche.   Scott Adams’ novel has become highly talked about and critically acclaimed in the contemporary philosophical community since its publication in 2001. In the introduction, he describes his novel as a thought experiment that poses philosophical questions to the common stances held in both religion and science.   The key argument of the book is: the purpose of life is to create communication systems (i.e. the internet, the radio and television).   As convincing as his novel is it is very clear that it adheres to some totalitarian ideals, and also to the human desire to know the cause of existence. Analysis: The Bible poses that God made man in his image. Scott Adams identifies with this concept in that he views god as an entity that thinks like man.   He argues, if God is all knowing, than the only thing God wouldnt know is what would life be like without he/she/itself. (Adams, pg14)    This curiosity leads to Gods self destruction and is Adams explanation for the Big Bang Theory.   This is very ironic considering that Nietzche argues that man is anxious about the unknown.   He says, with the unknown, one is confronted with danger, discomfort, and care,—the first instinct is to abolish [wegzuschaffen] these painful states (Nietzche, 5).   This is the first point where Adam’s argument is lacking, because he is treating God like a man and having him act exactly as a man would in this position.   Since the Big Bang is credited for the creation of the universe, Adams comes to the conclusion that we are all Gods Debris reforming God again. The again in the statement is key, because it poses the possibility that this is not the first time any of this has happened. Of course, until there is a universe, there can be no such thing as time. Plus, it only makes sense that God would be in a continuous cycle of self-destruction and rebirth, since everything else we are used to in our natural world operates in cycles. The main purpose of Adam’s argument is to pose that we are all attempting to form into one all knowing being through the creation of communication systems.   He is essential promoting a global form of totalitarianism.   He has also basically explained the meaning of life and the cause of creation.   This is all very comforting for one unfamiliar with Nietzche, who says, to derive something unknown from something familiar relieves, comforts, and satisfies, besides giving a feeling of power (Nietzche, 5).   This statement is true, because after first reading Adam’s ideology on creation I felt very powerful like I had the answer to the eternal question.   I literally felt like I was contributing to something larger than myself and that was my core purpose in life. I also no longer felt like an individual, but insignificant unless I was a contributing to the whole.   This feeling I felt even furthermore validates the view that Adam’s theory is one in the pursuit of global totalitarianism.   Arendt justifies it when he says, any neutrality, indeed any spontaneously given friendship, is from the standpoint of totalitarian domination just as dangerous as open hostility, precisely because spontaneity as such, with its incalculability, is the greatest of all obstacles to total domination over man (Arendt).    Here Arendt points out that a totalitarian system can not permit any individuality whatsoever; and by Adam’s definition, God can’t be reformed until every being knows what the others know.   His view does not promote racism, but it does imply the alienation of anyone unwilling to conform with the expectations of the information age.    Arendt goes on to explain what totalitarian systems do to individuals like this with an example from the Nazi regime: if he is purged from the party and sent to a forced-labor or a concentration camp. On the contrary, to the wonder of the whole civilized world, he may even be willing to help in his own prosecution and frame his own death sentence (Arendt).   This is only the natural fellowship that forms when people congregate, and it has all of the symptoms of a cult. The main thing that both the Nazi regime and Adam’s theory have in common, are its use of God as a core motivator.   With god as the center of Adam’s argument, there is a sense of obligation to adhere to his laws.   This is very similar to the Nazi regime that felt it was chosen by God as the racial elite to purge the world of those who were inferior.   Nietzche acknowledges the powerful hold that God has on the rational of man.   In fact, it is the entire theme of Morality as Anti-Nature.   He says: the world does not form a unity either as a sensorium or as spirit—that alone is the great liberation; with this alone is the innocence of becoming restored The concept of God was until now the greatest objection to existence We deny God, we deny the responsibility in God: only thereby do we redeem the world. (Nietzche, 8) Basically arguing that to deny God is to liberate oneself from burden, his argument has a very ironic undertone considering the number of wars that have been declared in God’s name, and the vast number of people who sacrifice their happiness to do what they deem to be God’s will.   The prime example of this is World War II.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The key argument that both Arendt and Neitzche propose is that some people have weaker wills than others.   Arendt argues this when he points out that the societies most vulnerable to totalitarian governments are those that have a non caring apathetic majority.   Those who don’t have the will power to get involved with their own governments, or to make a conscious effort to vote, these people tend to be taken advantage of and eventually disregarded by powerful totalitarian structures formed under their noses. Neitzche argues this notion when he says, †¦in the fight against a craving—castration, extirpation—is instinctively chosen by those who are too weak-willed, too degenerate, to be able to impose moderation on themselves; by those who are so constituted that they require ‘la Trappe’ (Nietzche,2).   Here he identifies that some people need to have a structure forced upon them by nature, because they are too weak minded to think for themselves.   They have no choice but to follow trend, or Hitler, whichever it may be.   Ironically, what Neitzche and Arendt deem to be weak will, Socrates refers to as ignorance and credits it as the cause for evil. Socrates was a man filled with faith in human nature.   Socrates’ philosophy of human nature doing evil was that a person only does evil in ignorance, for he believed everyone, just as himself wants only what is good.   The source of someone doing evil is brought about by unlimited desire.   Something that goes unmitigated becomes possessive of that person and they in turn want, and want, without satiation.   This is when the appetitive part of the soul (the part of the soul that wants sex, food, etc.) overtakes the rational (part seeking truth, and reason) of the soul resulting in moral weakness or akrasia. This idea is very compatible with the opening line of Morality as Anti-Nature, when Neitzche says, all passions have a phase when they are merely disastrous, when they drag down their victim with the weight of stupidity (Neitzche, 1).   Though Socrates and Neitzche agree on this aspect, they would disagree on Neitzche’s point that God should be disregarded.   In Neitzche’s defense Aristotle argued that by Socrates inciting a belief in God, he was also placing too much blind faith in the human nature to be virtuous.   It is no wonder why religious canons focus so much of their effort on regulating pleasure and passion; and as Scott Adam’s shows God can still be used to herd people in a totalitarian direction, even today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In sum, confronting this idea that to deny God is to liberate one’s self, it brings up many questions.   Theoretically speaking, if there is no God, what is their to prevent chaos, but the structure of man made law and a totalitarian society?   Even if God is used as a catalyst to erupt corrupt governments, these governments keep more piece than chaos can bring. It is the anxiety of the people that needs to be controlled, the anxiety of what life would be like without governmental control, the anxiety of what life would be like without God.   Though Nietzche speaks rationally for the individual who wants complete freedom, his words are lost on the Arendt’s masses, and especially those who devoutly follow the Reich.   The only hope within acknowledging that all societies’ sanity reside in the use of a mildly totalitarian system, is to have some citizens who pride themselves on being free thinking individuals, a totalitarian individualist culture. Work Cited Adams, Scott. Gods Debris. Kansas City: Andrews McMeel Publishing, 2004. Arendt, Hannah. The Origins of Totalitarianism. New York: Schocken, 2004. Nietzsche, Friedrich et.al. Twilight of the Idols. New York: Penguin Books, 1990. Plato. Complete Works. Ed. John M. Cooper. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1997

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks MANET

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks MANET Abstract Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is a wireless network capable of autonomous operation. MANET routing has no fixed base station and hence nodes in the network are mobile and self configuring. A MANET is characterized by multi hop routing so that nodes are not connected to layer 2 but can communicate through layer 3 routing. In MANET every node is a potential router and the topologies are dynamic due to node mobility. This paper presents a comprehensive study of four MANET routing protocols ADOV (Ad Hoc On demand Distance Vector), DSR (Dynamic Source Routing), OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing) and TORA (Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm). For experimental purpose six scenarios have been considered. These 6 scenarios are generated with 3 different traffic parameters namely high resolution video, light HTTP and high FTP load. This traffic was passed individually on to each scenario on 2 different node setup (20, 100 nodes). Finally, graphical evaluation of each protocol was based on t heir performances which are calculated on the basis of performance metrics used which are End to end delay, Network load and Throughput. Chapter 1: Introduction This chapter demonstrates a brief overview of the project. Now days in our day to day life we see so many changes around the world accelerating with respect to technology. In this technical world Internet has brought revolution in communication media. Communication is said to the method of information exchange either between two people or between two end users (in terms of computers). Communication is said to be done when a file or a message is passed over the medium among two people. Here the usage of internet comes into existence. Internet can be used as shared medium for information interchange between users around the globe. This information can be of any type: Short Message Mail File transfers Video Audio etc When these types of information are passed among internet, it uses either the wired media (for connecting users locally) or wireless media (for connecting locally or globally). When this information exchange is done the packets carry that information through the protocols available for the respective media to deliver the packet to the destination. This is the process of information exchange. In this paper, similar work is experimented over MANET (Mobile Ad Hoc Networks) [chapter 2] for information exchange using four different protocols. This setup was done internally over a virtual setup of networks using OPNET modeller 14.5. So the investigation of protocols is done based on the performance of each protocol. In the scenarios, each protocol is passed with 3 different types of traffics namely: High FTP load, High Resolution Video and Light HTTP Browsing. This thesis concludes the performance of four routing protocols towards through the end. Keywords: MANET, AODV, OLSR, TORA, DSR, OPNET Modeler 14.5. 1.1 Organisation of Thesis: This thesis gives an overview of how the project is organised with respect to each chapter. The very first chapter is Introduction of the Thesis, which shows a project idea and the tasks to achieve the goals. Second chapter Literature Survey which contains the studies and work which has been done previously by other authors on the related topics with the parameters used by them for their work. The scenarios used for my work are related somewhere by overall different results are taken with different parameters used. Again the classification and the background work of MANETs are explained following the comparison of MANET routing protocols. The parameters and scenarios used for my work are explained briefly with the simulation setup in chapter 3, Implementation. The results of the simulations and experiments performed are explained in chapter 4, Performance Evaluation and Design. The results are taken graphically which helps in comparing the results for routing protocols against the pe rformance metrics used to investigate the performance. The graphs are explained briefly in chapter 4. The results gathered with the help of scenarios in chapter 3 are concluded with the future work on the routing protocols in chapter 5, Conclusion and Future Work. Finally the supported documents for the project which helped in making the simulation and project start up is kept in Appendix A. And finally chapter 6 shows all the sources and references used for the thesis to help in achieving all the supported information and work. 1.2 Objective of Work The main objective of this work is to study the different routing protocols, which are developed for Mobile Ad hoc networks (MANETs), and to compare the different routing protocols by using simulation tool OPNET Modeler 14.5. As a part of the work four major routing protocols OLSR, AODV, DSR and TORA have been selected and carried out the simulations for comparing the performance of these protocols. Three performance metrics delay; Network Load and Throughput are used to compare the performance of the routing protocols. Objective 1 To get a clear understanding and functioning of different routing protocols for Mobile Ad hoc networks. This objective could be achieved by reading and understanding the various papers available on routing protocols of Mobile Ad hoc networks. Objective 2 To do a literature survey of previous work done on MANET Routing Protocols so that something different and efficient simulation could be introduced. For this objective different articles and papers published has been studied thoroughly and analysed from websites, books and all relevant resources available. By going through literature survey on routing protocols, the desired simulation environment and setup have been introduced with different simulation parameters. Literature Survey is explained in chapter 2. Objective 3 Conducting an experiment and collecting the output data: This objective has been achieved by designing the appropriate networks with the appropriate simulation parameters and running a simulation for different protocols for different performance metrics. After conducting the simulation the output data have been collected graphically. The results are shown graphically and explained in the project in chapter 4. Objective 4 Analyzing the output data and ending up with summary and the conclusion: The results have been studied and explained in chapter 4. After studying the simulation results conclusion has been made with some future work which can be done further. Conclusion of the project and future work is explained in chapter 5. Chapter 2: Literature Survey 2.1 Introduction This chapter gives a brief introduction about the work done in previous related papers and reports related to this project. In addition, the introduction to the routing protocols and their classification with respect to routing is demonstrated. This chapter is a short review of the previous work done and the additional objectives regarding routing protocols. The four MANET routing protocols are selected to evaluate the performances; they are OLSR, AODV, DSR and TORA. The further implementations of these protocols are explained later in this thesis (Chapter 3). MANET is an infrastructure less network which provides the freedom to the nodes to be free to move anywhere in the network (Stefano Basagni, 2004). 2.2 Related Work on Routing Protocols: As we see from (Mahmoud), analysis of two reactive protocols DSR and TORA were done using OPNET Modeller. In their simulation scenario, they used 50 wireless devices in each scenario with constant traffic parameters and protocol specification settings. They have passed FTP traffic of 1000 bytes making it constant throughout the simulation. Evaluation of these protocols was done based on the performance metrics used which are: Delay, Data dropped, Throughput and media access delay. Their simulation results shows that DSR performance was better than TORA in terms of throughput as TORA produces less throughput due to additional overhead used for path creation and path maintenance. At the same time TORA minimizes communication overhead by localization which results in less delay when compared to DSR as there is no such mechanism in DSR. Similarly, from (Zukarnain, 2009) they have done evaluation of MANET routing protocol AODV in order to establish the connection between the nodes since the mobile node can change their topology frequently. So their study was carried on different mobile node movement pattern which are: Random Waypoint Mobility Model, Random Walk Mobility Model and Random Direction Mobility Model. In order to evaluate the performance of the protocol with these node movement patterns, performance metrics used were Routing overhead, Throughput and Packet delivery ratio. They used 2 simulation scenarios where in the first scenario comparison was made on different mobility model varying different number of nodes 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 with fixed speed of 15m/s and in other case comparison was made to evaluate the protocol on different mobility models with varying speeds 5, 10, 15, 20 m/s and 50 nodes as constant all through. They concluded that Random waypoint model is best for AODV compared to other mobility m odels as the protocol produces highest throughput than compared to others. Other related work from (Nyirenda, 2009) gives the similar working of MANET routing protocols AODV, OLSR, DSR and TORA on OPNET 14.5. Their work carried out for study the performance of the four protocols by different performance metrics which are: Network load, Packet delivery ratio, Packet end-to-end delay and Throughput. The simulation setup which was implemented on 6 different scenarios where the traffic passing on to the network was ranging from low to high network load, nodes changing from 5, 20, 50 and with speed ranging from 10 m/s to 28 m/s. Mobility model used in this was Random waypoint model for mobility pattern. They conclusions included in their work showed that OLSR performed better compared to the other protocols as it has a bad routing overhead and hence it is well suited for large and complex networks. So apart from routing overhead OLSR performed better but with routing overhead DSR is better. But when in small network AODV is much better compared to other protocol s. So finally, proactive protocols perform well in high capacity links whereas reactive protocols perform better in low capacity networks. From another paper (Maltz, 2001), we see that working on demand routing protocols in MANET was done where DSR protocol was compared to other on demand protocols like AODV, TORA and DSDV. Simulation setup carried is represented in tables below: With the above simulation setup the protocols were evaluated based on the performance metrics used which was Packet delivery ratio, Routing overhead, Path optimality and lower speed of nodes. The conclusions showed that DSR performed well when referred to packet loss rate and routing over head is concerned. Of all careful implementation done with all the above parameters tested on the experiment test beds DSR out performed in every case scenario used when compared all the other protocols used in this setup. 2.3 Background Work A network can be said as association of different systems or organizations where sharing the information can be done collectively. Whereas in computing terms it can be simply defined as a group of computers connected together logically to share information like printing, faxing, etc The network can be divided into 2 types based on their working behaviour. They are: Infrastructure network: These networks are used where the topology is said to be limited and there is a fixed point like base station (generally referred as router) to transmit signals and the end points which are connected to base station communicate with each other devices on the network switching from one base station to another. When a node moves out of range within its network, then it is said to be connected to another base station range where this process is referred as handoff. We can often see this type of mechanisms in infrastructure and fixed or wired networks. Infrastructure less network: These networks are a typical type of networks where there are no such fixed nodes or topologies on the network and the end pints or devices on the network are free to communicate with each other devices on the network as each device on the network behave themselves as routers and encourages communication process all over the network. By this we can say that wireless technology is a promising technology that can tolerate the information exchange worldwide. In the last decade we can also see the constant increase in the growth wireless technology issues, one of which being mobile devices such as laptops, cell phones, PDAs etc Ad hoc networks are also the part of this type of network. Mobile Ad hoc network is a new technology emerged with the hypothesis of wireless networks. These networks are very typical and do not use any fixed infrastructure for communication process. The nodes connected in these networks are wireless links which are mobile in nature and communicate with each other mobile node in the network with radio transmission and topology is said to establish by the intermediate nodes on the network which are helpful for communication process. As there are no fixed infrastructure and limited topology constraints the nodes on the network are free to join and leave the network and this is possible as the nodes on the network are mobile. Due to this random movement of the nodes in the network the topology of the network changes dynamically. Due to this change protocol must be able to acclimatize with these movements and are also responsible to maintain the routes of the information travelled without disturbing network connectivity. This concept of ad hoc network allows each node on its network to act like router, resulting in the flow of information exchange with multi hop routing. These types of networks are widely used in military and other rescue applications. (Saadawi, 2003) 2.4 Routing: Routing is the process of moving the data from one place of the network to another. The one end should be the source which intends to transfer the data to the destination (other end). The concept of routing has been there since 1970s but it has caught the move in 1980s. In 1970s networks were simple and today there are large scale networks in existence. To move the data from one host to another at least one router is required in the network. Router has all the information regarding hosts in the network and it can manipulate the best possible route as well. (Javvin, 2004) Routing takes place at Layer 3 in OSI 7 layer Model. Some of the protocols at layer 3 are IP and IS-IS. These protocols carry the data between source and destination along with their addresses in the data packet. Routing involves two basic activities; Path Determination and Switching. These two activities are capable to determine the optical routing path and to transfer the data packets through internetworking. This is called Switching. Switching can still be easy where as determining the reliable path is difficult. Path Determination: Routing make use of the different routing protocols to determine the best possible path to deliver the data. Routing protocols use the metric to calculate which the best possible path to accomplish the task is. The metric used could be path bandwidth, path length, delay etc. to determine the optimal path. To determine the path in the network, routing algorithms maintains the routing tables which are used to store the routing information about the network. Routers communicate with each other in order to maintain their routing tables which make communication easier and faster. Routing information can vary according to the routing algorithm used for the process. (Cisco, 2010) Switching: Apart from path determination, router shows one more activity; Packet Switching. Switching simply means forwarding the required data from one interface to the another in order to reach the destination. In this case, the data to be forwarded is packet. The next interface address is decided by using the destination address present in the packet. Though the nodes know the next hop address, they still need to know how to use it. So for that reason they use routing tables. The routing table throws the packet away when the destination is unknown. But when the destination is known routing table posses all the interface information forming the route to the destination. (2006) The next hop address could be another host or either it could be a router. According to ISO developed hierarchical terminology, the systems which have the capability to forward the data from the source to the destination are called Intermediate Systems (IS) and the systems which fails to do so are called as End systems (ES). When it is a router it follows the same procedure as this one, and if it is a host it simply forwards the packet. In packet switching, the Layer 3 address of the source and the destination remains the same to authenticate the original sender and the receiver. However the Layer 2 address (MAC) changes from router to router and from router to host which at last determines the destination host. (Cisco, 2010) 2.5 Ad hoc Networks An ad hoc network is a collection of many autonomous nodes connected together by radio waves and maintain the connectivity in decentralised manner. Wireless ad hoc networks are connected through wireless links so there is no need of any physical medium and hence contend of the medium is always there such as noise, interference and fading. On ad hoc networks each node functions as a node and a router itself. It simply means there is no need of an additional switch or a router to route the data and the control is given to the nodes themselves. (Yang Li, 2010) 2.6 Mobile Ad hoc Networks: A Mobile Ad hoc Network is an autonomous network formed by hundreds or thousands of nodes. These networks dont need any infrastructure as they can act as a node and router itself. They are free to move anywhere in the network and are connected through radio links. The only limitation with the MANETs is that they can communicate in a particular rage of the radio waves and outside the network they need some additional arrangements to communicate. To overcome this limitation the Intermediate Node or sometimes called as Relays are brought into picture. Intermediate nodes help in forwarding the packets to the destination. In MANET nodes are free to travel anywhere in the network, hence network topology cannot be fixed for such networks and it keeps changing depending on the current location of the nodes. (ANTDS, 2001) The fundamental differences between the wired networks and MANET are: Asymmetric Links Redundant Link Interference Dynamic Topology 2.7 Characteristics of MANETs There are several MANET routing protocols which should handle the several inherent characteristics of MANETs as follows as mentioned in (Subbarao)(Jain, 2005): Dynamic Topologies: Since the MANET is infrastructure less ad hoc networks, the nodes are free to move arbitrarily. The mobility of nodes may be random and so unpredictable. So the links between the nodes may be unidirectional or bidirectional at times. Bandwidth Constrained, Variable Capacity Wireless Links: Wireless links generally are bandwidth constrained. Since there is a lower capacity in wireless links as compared to the wired links, the traffic congestion is typical rather than different. Energy/Power Constrained Operation: Energy consumption is vital in MANETs as these nodes operate typically off power limited sources. Some or all nodes in MANETs rely on batteries. Limited Physical Security: Wireless networks like MANETs are more vulnerable with the security issues available with them. Issues like eavesdropping, jammer attack, spoofing and denial of service attacks must be carefully considered. 2.8 Need of MANET Routing Protocols A mobile ad hoc routing protocol is used to discover new routes and maintain the existing routes between the nodes in the network. MANET (Mobile Ad Hoc Network) is the collecting of mobile nodes which are present in random manner in the network has the capacity to communicate and exchange information effectively over the network by facilitating the intermediate nodes for their communication. The essential task of a MANET protocol is to create or discover the correct and efficient routes between the nodes so that information can be delivered accurately with respect to time. Route construction should be done with less overhead and minimal bandwidth consumption for effective communication. 2.9 Applications of MANETs Applications of MANETs can be used in many critical situations today and are increasing widely. There are many applications of MANETs today and some of them are mentioned here. An ideal application is for search and rescue operations. Such kind of operations is characterized by the networks without having an infrastructure present. One of the reasons for this may be because all of the equipment was destroyed or may be the region is too remote. Rescuer must be capable of communicating to use their energy fairly and also they must maintain the security. Carrying the equipments for communication that the rescuers are already using makes the job easier. The commercial application for MANETs includes computing everywhere which means the mobile devices are free to move anywhere in the network and yet it is possible to be in communication with the devices. The computers are allowed to forward the data to another computer or data networks may be extended far beyond the considered reach. Such networks may be more widely available and much easier in use. Another important application of MANETs is Sensor Networks. Sensor networks are composed of very large number of small sensors which are able to detect number of properties of the area, for example; temperature, pressure, toxins, pollutions etc. In this case, the capability of sensor network is much limited. So there is always need to forward data to the central computer and for this purpose they have to rely upon others in order to forward data to the central computer. The sensor networks individually are limited in their computing capabilities but together can be very effective and the key to future homeland security. But individual sensors because of their limited computing capabilities can prove prone to failure and loss. There are many other applications of MANETs like personal area networking where the communicating nodes may be mobile phones, laptops etc. Also this has a potential in military operations with the nodes of the network as soldiers, tanks and airplanes. Many more areas includes civilian environment to diverse taxi cab networks, conference rooms, boats and ships. (Bluetronix, 2006) 2.10 Classification of Routing Protocols According to (Jain, 2005), ad hoc routing protocols can be classified mainly into two categories: Table driven (proactive) Routing 2.10.1 Proactive (Table-Driven) Routing Protocols These routing protocols are similar to and come as a natural extension of those for the wired networks. In proactive routing, each node has one or more tables that contain the latest information of the routes to any node in the network. Each row has the next hop for reaching a node/subnet and the cost of this route. Various table-driven protocols differ in the way the information about a change in topology is propagated through all nodes in the network. (LinuxOnly) In proactive routing protocol each node maintains the up to date routing information of all nodes in the network. Here each node maintains the routing table and broadcast it when there is a change in network topology. As soon as source needs the route to the destination it can select from the routing table. The routing table is exchanged periodically by broadcasting to all nodes in the network to keep track of the new message even though the topology is not changed. Each nodes has the routing information of all nodes in the network though most of it undesired. Advantages of proactive protocols are that the communication experiences a minimal delay and routes are up to date. Disadvantage is that the routes are broken as a result of mobility of nodes. (Chang) Following are the examples of table driven protocols: GSR and OLSR and some other proactive routing protocols are FSR, HSR, ZHLSR, CGSR and WRP etc. 2.10.1.1 OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing) OLSR Protocol is based on traditional link state algorithm which supports point to point routing strategy. In this strategy the nodes keeps exchanging the information periodically in order to maintain the network topology within the network. OLSR is an optimization version of link state protocols. That means it keeps flooding the topological changes information to all the hosts across the network when happens. OLSR is also proved beneficial for the reason that it minimizes the size of each control message exchanged and also it avoids each node to rebroadcast during the updating of the routes. It uses the Multi Point Replaying (MPR) strategy to do the above task. For MPR strategy each node creates a set of all of its neighbouring nodes, generally called multipoint relays of the node, in the network to transmit the packet once again. Each node in the particular set can receive and process the packet but only cannot retransmit it. To use MRPs, each node has to keep broadcasting periodic ally to all one hop neighbours using hello messages. Another method to reduce the overhead is to provide the shortest path. When the time interval is reduced for the control messages transmission, it can prove more reactive to the topological changes (Kuosmanen). The implementation of OLSR protocol basically uses two control messages; Hello message and Topology Control (TC). The hello messages are to be sent only one hop away from the host and are used for finding the link state information and hosts neighbours. MPR selector sets are constructed with Hello messages which explain which host in the network has chosen this host to act as MPR and using the information the host can select its own set of MPRs. The Topology control (TC) messages are to be broadcasted across entire network about the advertised neighbours and it includes at least the MPR selector list. As OLSR is proactive approach and it keeps updating the routing table periodically, the TC messages are also broadcasted periodically and the hosts with MPR selector set can only forward the TC messages. There can also be MID message which is Multiple Interface Declaration message to declare that the announcing hosts can have multiple OLSR interface addresses. And again MID message are broadcasted throughout entire network and only by MPRs. 2.10.2 Reactive (Source Initiated) Routing Protocols These protocols take a lazy approach to routing. They do not maintain or constantly update their route tables with the latest route topology. Reactive routing is also known as on-demand routing. The Reactive Routing Protocols are also called as Source initiated Demand Driven protocols. They are called so because the routes are discovered only when needed by source. Source initiated on demand networks cerates routing only when desired by the source node. When source wants to communicate with destination then it invokes the route discovery mechanism to find the path to the destination. The route discovery process is completed once a route is found or all possible are identified. Once the rout is formed between source and destination it is maintained by a route maintenance procedure until the destination becomes inaccessible or the route is no longer desired. (Chang) These Examples of reactive routing protocols are dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing AODV, ABR, SSA, CBRP, and RDMAR. 2.10.2.1 AODV (Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector) Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector protocol as the name implies it is an On Demand that is, Reactive Protocol. AODV is capable of both unicast and multicast routing. It is an on demand algorithm, it means that it builds routes between nodes only as desired by source nodes. It uses the concepts of DSR routing for route discovery and route maintenance and DSDV protocol for the concept of sequence number. It uses sequence number concept to ensure the freshness of routes. The ad hoc on-demand Distance vector algorithm facilitates the self-starting, multi hop and dynamic routing between participating nodes to establish and maintain an ad hoc network. AODV algorithm enables the nodes to find the routes for new destinations as and when they are needed and the nodes are not required to maintain the routes to the destination that are not in the part of active communication. It also enables the nodes in the formation of multicast groups and enables the nodes to respond quickly to link breakages and topological changes in the network thus the operation of AODV is loop free and thus avoids the Balham Ford count to infinity problem. AODV routing protocol is a simple and effective routing protocol for Ad hoc networks. It also uses the concept of hop by hope routing and sequence numbers from DSDV protocol. The following are the message types defined by AODV they are: Route request (RREQ), Route replies (RREP), Route error (RERR) and group hellos (GRPH) this message types are handled by UDP and IP header. The route request message format contains the following fields: Source address: the address of the node which originates the route request Source Sequence number: the current sequence number to be used in deciding the route for the source request Destination address: the address of the target node for which the route is initialized. Destination Sequence numbers: the sequence number received by source for route towards the destination. Broadcast ID: The sequence number by which a RREQ route request can be uniquely identified. Hop counts: the number of the hops to be taken from the source node to reach the destination node that handles the Route request. The Route Reply message format contains the following fields Destination address: the address of the destination node for which the route is abounded Destination sequence number: the destination sequence number related to the route Source address: the address of the source node that originates the route request Lifetime: the time for which nodes receiving the route reply considers the route to be valid. Hop counts: the number of hops to be taken from source to destination. The route error message format contains the following fields: Unreachable destination address: The address of the destination that has become unreachable due to link failure. (Arbia, 2008) In AODV the only nodes that take active participation in routing process are the nodes that sit in direct path between source and destination. The nodes which do not lie on active path do not take participate or maintain the routing table, thus AODV minimize the number of control messages sent between two nodes. As long as there is a valid routes between the source and destination for communication, AODV does not play any role and when a new route to a new destination is required and if the route to the destination does not exist only then the source node initialize the route discovery process by broadcasting the RREQ message to find the route to destination. The Mobile Ad Hoc Networks MANET Mobile Ad Hoc Networks MANET Abstract Mobile Ad Hoc Network (MANET) is a wireless network capable of autonomous operation. MANET routing has no fixed base station and hence nodes in the network are mobile and self configuring. A MANET is characterized by multi hop routing so that nodes are not connected to layer 2 but can communicate through layer 3 routing. In MANET every node is a potential router and the topologies are dynamic due to node mobility. This paper presents a comprehensive study of four MANET routing protocols ADOV (Ad Hoc On demand Distance Vector), DSR (Dynamic Source Routing), OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing) and TORA (Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm). For experimental purpose six scenarios have been considered. These 6 scenarios are generated with 3 different traffic parameters namely high resolution video, light HTTP and high FTP load. This traffic was passed individually on to each scenario on 2 different node setup (20, 100 nodes). Finally, graphical evaluation of each protocol was based on t heir performances which are calculated on the basis of performance metrics used which are End to end delay, Network load and Throughput. Chapter 1: Introduction This chapter demonstrates a brief overview of the project. Now days in our day to day life we see so many changes around the world accelerating with respect to technology. In this technical world Internet has brought revolution in communication media. Communication is said to the method of information exchange either between two people or between two end users (in terms of computers). Communication is said to be done when a file or a message is passed over the medium among two people. Here the usage of internet comes into existence. Internet can be used as shared medium for information interchange between users around the globe. This information can be of any type: Short Message Mail File transfers Video Audio etc When these types of information are passed among internet, it uses either the wired media (for connecting users locally) or wireless media (for connecting locally or globally). When this information exchange is done the packets carry that information through the protocols available for the respective media to deliver the packet to the destination. This is the process of information exchange. In this paper, similar work is experimented over MANET (Mobile Ad Hoc Networks) [chapter 2] for information exchange using four different protocols. This setup was done internally over a virtual setup of networks using OPNET modeller 14.5. So the investigation of protocols is done based on the performance of each protocol. In the scenarios, each protocol is passed with 3 different types of traffics namely: High FTP load, High Resolution Video and Light HTTP Browsing. This thesis concludes the performance of four routing protocols towards through the end. Keywords: MANET, AODV, OLSR, TORA, DSR, OPNET Modeler 14.5. 1.1 Organisation of Thesis: This thesis gives an overview of how the project is organised with respect to each chapter. The very first chapter is Introduction of the Thesis, which shows a project idea and the tasks to achieve the goals. Second chapter Literature Survey which contains the studies and work which has been done previously by other authors on the related topics with the parameters used by them for their work. The scenarios used for my work are related somewhere by overall different results are taken with different parameters used. Again the classification and the background work of MANETs are explained following the comparison of MANET routing protocols. The parameters and scenarios used for my work are explained briefly with the simulation setup in chapter 3, Implementation. The results of the simulations and experiments performed are explained in chapter 4, Performance Evaluation and Design. The results are taken graphically which helps in comparing the results for routing protocols against the pe rformance metrics used to investigate the performance. The graphs are explained briefly in chapter 4. The results gathered with the help of scenarios in chapter 3 are concluded with the future work on the routing protocols in chapter 5, Conclusion and Future Work. Finally the supported documents for the project which helped in making the simulation and project start up is kept in Appendix A. And finally chapter 6 shows all the sources and references used for the thesis to help in achieving all the supported information and work. 1.2 Objective of Work The main objective of this work is to study the different routing protocols, which are developed for Mobile Ad hoc networks (MANETs), and to compare the different routing protocols by using simulation tool OPNET Modeler 14.5. As a part of the work four major routing protocols OLSR, AODV, DSR and TORA have been selected and carried out the simulations for comparing the performance of these protocols. Three performance metrics delay; Network Load and Throughput are used to compare the performance of the routing protocols. Objective 1 To get a clear understanding and functioning of different routing protocols for Mobile Ad hoc networks. This objective could be achieved by reading and understanding the various papers available on routing protocols of Mobile Ad hoc networks. Objective 2 To do a literature survey of previous work done on MANET Routing Protocols so that something different and efficient simulation could be introduced. For this objective different articles and papers published has been studied thoroughly and analysed from websites, books and all relevant resources available. By going through literature survey on routing protocols, the desired simulation environment and setup have been introduced with different simulation parameters. Literature Survey is explained in chapter 2. Objective 3 Conducting an experiment and collecting the output data: This objective has been achieved by designing the appropriate networks with the appropriate simulation parameters and running a simulation for different protocols for different performance metrics. After conducting the simulation the output data have been collected graphically. The results are shown graphically and explained in the project in chapter 4. Objective 4 Analyzing the output data and ending up with summary and the conclusion: The results have been studied and explained in chapter 4. After studying the simulation results conclusion has been made with some future work which can be done further. Conclusion of the project and future work is explained in chapter 5. Chapter 2: Literature Survey 2.1 Introduction This chapter gives a brief introduction about the work done in previous related papers and reports related to this project. In addition, the introduction to the routing protocols and their classification with respect to routing is demonstrated. This chapter is a short review of the previous work done and the additional objectives regarding routing protocols. The four MANET routing protocols are selected to evaluate the performances; they are OLSR, AODV, DSR and TORA. The further implementations of these protocols are explained later in this thesis (Chapter 3). MANET is an infrastructure less network which provides the freedom to the nodes to be free to move anywhere in the network (Stefano Basagni, 2004). 2.2 Related Work on Routing Protocols: As we see from (Mahmoud), analysis of two reactive protocols DSR and TORA were done using OPNET Modeller. In their simulation scenario, they used 50 wireless devices in each scenario with constant traffic parameters and protocol specification settings. They have passed FTP traffic of 1000 bytes making it constant throughout the simulation. Evaluation of these protocols was done based on the performance metrics used which are: Delay, Data dropped, Throughput and media access delay. Their simulation results shows that DSR performance was better than TORA in terms of throughput as TORA produces less throughput due to additional overhead used for path creation and path maintenance. At the same time TORA minimizes communication overhead by localization which results in less delay when compared to DSR as there is no such mechanism in DSR. Similarly, from (Zukarnain, 2009) they have done evaluation of MANET routing protocol AODV in order to establish the connection between the nodes since the mobile node can change their topology frequently. So their study was carried on different mobile node movement pattern which are: Random Waypoint Mobility Model, Random Walk Mobility Model and Random Direction Mobility Model. In order to evaluate the performance of the protocol with these node movement patterns, performance metrics used were Routing overhead, Throughput and Packet delivery ratio. They used 2 simulation scenarios where in the first scenario comparison was made on different mobility model varying different number of nodes 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 with fixed speed of 15m/s and in other case comparison was made to evaluate the protocol on different mobility models with varying speeds 5, 10, 15, 20 m/s and 50 nodes as constant all through. They concluded that Random waypoint model is best for AODV compared to other mobility m odels as the protocol produces highest throughput than compared to others. Other related work from (Nyirenda, 2009) gives the similar working of MANET routing protocols AODV, OLSR, DSR and TORA on OPNET 14.5. Their work carried out for study the performance of the four protocols by different performance metrics which are: Network load, Packet delivery ratio, Packet end-to-end delay and Throughput. The simulation setup which was implemented on 6 different scenarios where the traffic passing on to the network was ranging from low to high network load, nodes changing from 5, 20, 50 and with speed ranging from 10 m/s to 28 m/s. Mobility model used in this was Random waypoint model for mobility pattern. They conclusions included in their work showed that OLSR performed better compared to the other protocols as it has a bad routing overhead and hence it is well suited for large and complex networks. So apart from routing overhead OLSR performed better but with routing overhead DSR is better. But when in small network AODV is much better compared to other protocol s. So finally, proactive protocols perform well in high capacity links whereas reactive protocols perform better in low capacity networks. From another paper (Maltz, 2001), we see that working on demand routing protocols in MANET was done where DSR protocol was compared to other on demand protocols like AODV, TORA and DSDV. Simulation setup carried is represented in tables below: With the above simulation setup the protocols were evaluated based on the performance metrics used which was Packet delivery ratio, Routing overhead, Path optimality and lower speed of nodes. The conclusions showed that DSR performed well when referred to packet loss rate and routing over head is concerned. Of all careful implementation done with all the above parameters tested on the experiment test beds DSR out performed in every case scenario used when compared all the other protocols used in this setup. 2.3 Background Work A network can be said as association of different systems or organizations where sharing the information can be done collectively. Whereas in computing terms it can be simply defined as a group of computers connected together logically to share information like printing, faxing, etc The network can be divided into 2 types based on their working behaviour. They are: Infrastructure network: These networks are used where the topology is said to be limited and there is a fixed point like base station (generally referred as router) to transmit signals and the end points which are connected to base station communicate with each other devices on the network switching from one base station to another. When a node moves out of range within its network, then it is said to be connected to another base station range where this process is referred as handoff. We can often see this type of mechanisms in infrastructure and fixed or wired networks. Infrastructure less network: These networks are a typical type of networks where there are no such fixed nodes or topologies on the network and the end pints or devices on the network are free to communicate with each other devices on the network as each device on the network behave themselves as routers and encourages communication process all over the network. By this we can say that wireless technology is a promising technology that can tolerate the information exchange worldwide. In the last decade we can also see the constant increase in the growth wireless technology issues, one of which being mobile devices such as laptops, cell phones, PDAs etc Ad hoc networks are also the part of this type of network. Mobile Ad hoc network is a new technology emerged with the hypothesis of wireless networks. These networks are very typical and do not use any fixed infrastructure for communication process. The nodes connected in these networks are wireless links which are mobile in nature and communicate with each other mobile node in the network with radio transmission and topology is said to establish by the intermediate nodes on the network which are helpful for communication process. As there are no fixed infrastructure and limited topology constraints the nodes on the network are free to join and leave the network and this is possible as the nodes on the network are mobile. Due to this random movement of the nodes in the network the topology of the network changes dynamically. Due to this change protocol must be able to acclimatize with these movements and are also responsible to maintain the routes of the information travelled without disturbing network connectivity. This concept of ad hoc network allows each node on its network to act like router, resulting in the flow of information exchange with multi hop routing. These types of networks are widely used in military and other rescue applications. (Saadawi, 2003) 2.4 Routing: Routing is the process of moving the data from one place of the network to another. The one end should be the source which intends to transfer the data to the destination (other end). The concept of routing has been there since 1970s but it has caught the move in 1980s. In 1970s networks were simple and today there are large scale networks in existence. To move the data from one host to another at least one router is required in the network. Router has all the information regarding hosts in the network and it can manipulate the best possible route as well. (Javvin, 2004) Routing takes place at Layer 3 in OSI 7 layer Model. Some of the protocols at layer 3 are IP and IS-IS. These protocols carry the data between source and destination along with their addresses in the data packet. Routing involves two basic activities; Path Determination and Switching. These two activities are capable to determine the optical routing path and to transfer the data packets through internetworking. This is called Switching. Switching can still be easy where as determining the reliable path is difficult. Path Determination: Routing make use of the different routing protocols to determine the best possible path to deliver the data. Routing protocols use the metric to calculate which the best possible path to accomplish the task is. The metric used could be path bandwidth, path length, delay etc. to determine the optimal path. To determine the path in the network, routing algorithms maintains the routing tables which are used to store the routing information about the network. Routers communicate with each other in order to maintain their routing tables which make communication easier and faster. Routing information can vary according to the routing algorithm used for the process. (Cisco, 2010) Switching: Apart from path determination, router shows one more activity; Packet Switching. Switching simply means forwarding the required data from one interface to the another in order to reach the destination. In this case, the data to be forwarded is packet. The next interface address is decided by using the destination address present in the packet. Though the nodes know the next hop address, they still need to know how to use it. So for that reason they use routing tables. The routing table throws the packet away when the destination is unknown. But when the destination is known routing table posses all the interface information forming the route to the destination. (2006) The next hop address could be another host or either it could be a router. According to ISO developed hierarchical terminology, the systems which have the capability to forward the data from the source to the destination are called Intermediate Systems (IS) and the systems which fails to do so are called as End systems (ES). When it is a router it follows the same procedure as this one, and if it is a host it simply forwards the packet. In packet switching, the Layer 3 address of the source and the destination remains the same to authenticate the original sender and the receiver. However the Layer 2 address (MAC) changes from router to router and from router to host which at last determines the destination host. (Cisco, 2010) 2.5 Ad hoc Networks An ad hoc network is a collection of many autonomous nodes connected together by radio waves and maintain the connectivity in decentralised manner. Wireless ad hoc networks are connected through wireless links so there is no need of any physical medium and hence contend of the medium is always there such as noise, interference and fading. On ad hoc networks each node functions as a node and a router itself. It simply means there is no need of an additional switch or a router to route the data and the control is given to the nodes themselves. (Yang Li, 2010) 2.6 Mobile Ad hoc Networks: A Mobile Ad hoc Network is an autonomous network formed by hundreds or thousands of nodes. These networks dont need any infrastructure as they can act as a node and router itself. They are free to move anywhere in the network and are connected through radio links. The only limitation with the MANETs is that they can communicate in a particular rage of the radio waves and outside the network they need some additional arrangements to communicate. To overcome this limitation the Intermediate Node or sometimes called as Relays are brought into picture. Intermediate nodes help in forwarding the packets to the destination. In MANET nodes are free to travel anywhere in the network, hence network topology cannot be fixed for such networks and it keeps changing depending on the current location of the nodes. (ANTDS, 2001) The fundamental differences between the wired networks and MANET are: Asymmetric Links Redundant Link Interference Dynamic Topology 2.7 Characteristics of MANETs There are several MANET routing protocols which should handle the several inherent characteristics of MANETs as follows as mentioned in (Subbarao)(Jain, 2005): Dynamic Topologies: Since the MANET is infrastructure less ad hoc networks, the nodes are free to move arbitrarily. The mobility of nodes may be random and so unpredictable. So the links between the nodes may be unidirectional or bidirectional at times. Bandwidth Constrained, Variable Capacity Wireless Links: Wireless links generally are bandwidth constrained. Since there is a lower capacity in wireless links as compared to the wired links, the traffic congestion is typical rather than different. Energy/Power Constrained Operation: Energy consumption is vital in MANETs as these nodes operate typically off power limited sources. Some or all nodes in MANETs rely on batteries. Limited Physical Security: Wireless networks like MANETs are more vulnerable with the security issues available with them. Issues like eavesdropping, jammer attack, spoofing and denial of service attacks must be carefully considered. 2.8 Need of MANET Routing Protocols A mobile ad hoc routing protocol is used to discover new routes and maintain the existing routes between the nodes in the network. MANET (Mobile Ad Hoc Network) is the collecting of mobile nodes which are present in random manner in the network has the capacity to communicate and exchange information effectively over the network by facilitating the intermediate nodes for their communication. The essential task of a MANET protocol is to create or discover the correct and efficient routes between the nodes so that information can be delivered accurately with respect to time. Route construction should be done with less overhead and minimal bandwidth consumption for effective communication. 2.9 Applications of MANETs Applications of MANETs can be used in many critical situations today and are increasing widely. There are many applications of MANETs today and some of them are mentioned here. An ideal application is for search and rescue operations. Such kind of operations is characterized by the networks without having an infrastructure present. One of the reasons for this may be because all of the equipment was destroyed or may be the region is too remote. Rescuer must be capable of communicating to use their energy fairly and also they must maintain the security. Carrying the equipments for communication that the rescuers are already using makes the job easier. The commercial application for MANETs includes computing everywhere which means the mobile devices are free to move anywhere in the network and yet it is possible to be in communication with the devices. The computers are allowed to forward the data to another computer or data networks may be extended far beyond the considered reach. Such networks may be more widely available and much easier in use. Another important application of MANETs is Sensor Networks. Sensor networks are composed of very large number of small sensors which are able to detect number of properties of the area, for example; temperature, pressure, toxins, pollutions etc. In this case, the capability of sensor network is much limited. So there is always need to forward data to the central computer and for this purpose they have to rely upon others in order to forward data to the central computer. The sensor networks individually are limited in their computing capabilities but together can be very effective and the key to future homeland security. But individual sensors because of their limited computing capabilities can prove prone to failure and loss. There are many other applications of MANETs like personal area networking where the communicating nodes may be mobile phones, laptops etc. Also this has a potential in military operations with the nodes of the network as soldiers, tanks and airplanes. Many more areas includes civilian environment to diverse taxi cab networks, conference rooms, boats and ships. (Bluetronix, 2006) 2.10 Classification of Routing Protocols According to (Jain, 2005), ad hoc routing protocols can be classified mainly into two categories: Table driven (proactive) Routing 2.10.1 Proactive (Table-Driven) Routing Protocols These routing protocols are similar to and come as a natural extension of those for the wired networks. In proactive routing, each node has one or more tables that contain the latest information of the routes to any node in the network. Each row has the next hop for reaching a node/subnet and the cost of this route. Various table-driven protocols differ in the way the information about a change in topology is propagated through all nodes in the network. (LinuxOnly) In proactive routing protocol each node maintains the up to date routing information of all nodes in the network. Here each node maintains the routing table and broadcast it when there is a change in network topology. As soon as source needs the route to the destination it can select from the routing table. The routing table is exchanged periodically by broadcasting to all nodes in the network to keep track of the new message even though the topology is not changed. Each nodes has the routing information of all nodes in the network though most of it undesired. Advantages of proactive protocols are that the communication experiences a minimal delay and routes are up to date. Disadvantage is that the routes are broken as a result of mobility of nodes. (Chang) Following are the examples of table driven protocols: GSR and OLSR and some other proactive routing protocols are FSR, HSR, ZHLSR, CGSR and WRP etc. 2.10.1.1 OLSR (Optimized Link State Routing) OLSR Protocol is based on traditional link state algorithm which supports point to point routing strategy. In this strategy the nodes keeps exchanging the information periodically in order to maintain the network topology within the network. OLSR is an optimization version of link state protocols. That means it keeps flooding the topological changes information to all the hosts across the network when happens. OLSR is also proved beneficial for the reason that it minimizes the size of each control message exchanged and also it avoids each node to rebroadcast during the updating of the routes. It uses the Multi Point Replaying (MPR) strategy to do the above task. For MPR strategy each node creates a set of all of its neighbouring nodes, generally called multipoint relays of the node, in the network to transmit the packet once again. Each node in the particular set can receive and process the packet but only cannot retransmit it. To use MRPs, each node has to keep broadcasting periodic ally to all one hop neighbours using hello messages. Another method to reduce the overhead is to provide the shortest path. When the time interval is reduced for the control messages transmission, it can prove more reactive to the topological changes (Kuosmanen). The implementation of OLSR protocol basically uses two control messages; Hello message and Topology Control (TC). The hello messages are to be sent only one hop away from the host and are used for finding the link state information and hosts neighbours. MPR selector sets are constructed with Hello messages which explain which host in the network has chosen this host to act as MPR and using the information the host can select its own set of MPRs. The Topology control (TC) messages are to be broadcasted across entire network about the advertised neighbours and it includes at least the MPR selector list. As OLSR is proactive approach and it keeps updating the routing table periodically, the TC messages are also broadcasted periodically and the hosts with MPR selector set can only forward the TC messages. There can also be MID message which is Multiple Interface Declaration message to declare that the announcing hosts can have multiple OLSR interface addresses. And again MID message are broadcasted throughout entire network and only by MPRs. 2.10.2 Reactive (Source Initiated) Routing Protocols These protocols take a lazy approach to routing. They do not maintain or constantly update their route tables with the latest route topology. Reactive routing is also known as on-demand routing. The Reactive Routing Protocols are also called as Source initiated Demand Driven protocols. They are called so because the routes are discovered only when needed by source. Source initiated on demand networks cerates routing only when desired by the source node. When source wants to communicate with destination then it invokes the route discovery mechanism to find the path to the destination. The route discovery process is completed once a route is found or all possible are identified. Once the rout is formed between source and destination it is maintained by a route maintenance procedure until the destination becomes inaccessible or the route is no longer desired. (Chang) These Examples of reactive routing protocols are dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing AODV, ABR, SSA, CBRP, and RDMAR. 2.10.2.1 AODV (Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector) Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector protocol as the name implies it is an On Demand that is, Reactive Protocol. AODV is capable of both unicast and multicast routing. It is an on demand algorithm, it means that it builds routes between nodes only as desired by source nodes. It uses the concepts of DSR routing for route discovery and route maintenance and DSDV protocol for the concept of sequence number. It uses sequence number concept to ensure the freshness of routes. The ad hoc on-demand Distance vector algorithm facilitates the self-starting, multi hop and dynamic routing between participating nodes to establish and maintain an ad hoc network. AODV algorithm enables the nodes to find the routes for new destinations as and when they are needed and the nodes are not required to maintain the routes to the destination that are not in the part of active communication. It also enables the nodes in the formation of multicast groups and enables the nodes to respond quickly to link breakages and topological changes in the network thus the operation of AODV is loop free and thus avoids the Balham Ford count to infinity problem. AODV routing protocol is a simple and effective routing protocol for Ad hoc networks. It also uses the concept of hop by hope routing and sequence numbers from DSDV protocol. The following are the message types defined by AODV they are: Route request (RREQ), Route replies (RREP), Route error (RERR) and group hellos (GRPH) this message types are handled by UDP and IP header. The route request message format contains the following fields: Source address: the address of the node which originates the route request Source Sequence number: the current sequence number to be used in deciding the route for the source request Destination address: the address of the target node for which the route is initialized. Destination Sequence numbers: the sequence number received by source for route towards the destination. Broadcast ID: The sequence number by which a RREQ route request can be uniquely identified. Hop counts: the number of the hops to be taken from the source node to reach the destination node that handles the Route request. The Route Reply message format contains the following fields Destination address: the address of the destination node for which the route is abounded Destination sequence number: the destination sequence number related to the route Source address: the address of the source node that originates the route request Lifetime: the time for which nodes receiving the route reply considers the route to be valid. Hop counts: the number of hops to be taken from source to destination. The route error message format contains the following fields: Unreachable destination address: The address of the destination that has become unreachable due to link failure. (Arbia, 2008) In AODV the only nodes that take active participation in routing process are the nodes that sit in direct path between source and destination. The nodes which do not lie on active path do not take participate or maintain the routing table, thus AODV minimize the number of control messages sent between two nodes. As long as there is a valid routes between the source and destination for communication, AODV does not play any role and when a new route to a new destination is required and if the route to the destination does not exist only then the source node initialize the route discovery process by broadcasting the RREQ message to find the route to destination. The